Materials

Corrosion-resistant alloys, as their name indicates, are alloys with enhanced corrosion resistance. Some ferrous and many non-ferrous metals and alloys are widely used in corrosive environments. In all cases, it strongly depends on certain environment and other conditions. Corrosion-resistant alloys are used for water piping and many chemical and industrial applications. In case of ferrous alloys, we are talking about stainless steels and to some extent about cast irons. But some non-ferrous corrosion-resistant alloys exhibit remarkable corrosion resistance nad therefore they may be used for many special purposes. There are two main reasons why nonferrous materials are preferred over steels and stainless steels for many of these applications. For example, many of the non-ferrous metals and alloys possess much higher resistance to corrosion than available alloy steels and stainless steel grades. Second, a high strength-to-weight ratio or high thermal and electrical conductivity may provide a distinct advantage over a ferrous alloy.

 

Types of Corrosion-resistant Alloys

Four common non-ferrous metals used for their well-documented corrosion resistance properties are:

• 

  Copper. Copper does not react with water, but it does slowly react with atmospheric oxygen to form a layer of brown-black copper oxide which, unlike the rust that forms on iron in moist air, protects the underlying metal from further corrosion (passivation). Copper nickel alloys and aluminium bronze demonstrate superior resistance to saltwater corrosion. For example, cupronickels are copper-nickel alloys that contain typically from 60 to 90 percent of copper and nickel as the main alloying element. The two main alloys are 90/10 and 70/30. Other strengthening elements, such as manganese and iron, may be also contained. Cupronickels have excellent resistance to corrosion caused by sea water. Despite its high copper content, cupronickel is silver in colour. The addition of nickel to copper also improves strength and corrosion resistance, but good ductility is retained. Cupronickels may be used in many marine applications, such as for the propellers and propeller shafts. Since cupronickel alloys have inherent resistance to macrofouling, good tensile strength, excellent ductility when annealed, high thermal conductivity and expansion characteristics, they may be used for heat exchangers, such as in steam turbine condensers, oil coolers, auxiliary cooling systems and high pressure pre-heaters at nuclear and fossil fuel power plants. Another very common corrosion-resistant material is an aluminium bronze, which has excellent corrosion resistance especially in seawater and similar environments, where the alloys often outperform many stainless steels. Their excellent resistance to corrosion results from the aluminium in the alloys, which reacts with atmospheric oxygen to form a thin, tough surface layer of alumina (aluminium oxide) which acts as a barrier to corrosion of the copper-rich alloy. They are found in wrought and cast form. Aluminium bronzes are usually golden in color. Aluminium bronzes are used in sea water applications that include:

  • General sea water-related services
  • Bearings
  • Pipe fittings
  • Pumps and valve components
  • Heat exchangers
• Nickel. Nickel is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. Nickel is one of most common alloying elements. About 65% of nickel production is used in stainless steels. Because nickel does not form any carbide compounds in steel, it remains in solution in the ferrite, thus strengthening and toughening the ferrite phase. Nickel steels are easily heat treated because nickel lowers the critical cooling rate. Nickel based alloys (e.g. Fe-Cr-Ni(Mo) alloys) alloys exhibit excellent ductility and toughness, even at high strength levels and these properties are retained up to low temperatures. Nickel and its alloys are highly resistant to corrosion in many environments, especially those that are basic (alkaline). Nickel also reduces thermal expansion for better dimensional stability. Nickel is the base elements for superalloys.  These metals have excellent resistance to thermal creep deformation and retain their stiffness, strength, toughness and dimensional stability at temperatures much higher than the other aerospace structural materials. For example, Inconel is a registered trademark of Special Metals for a family of austenitic nickel-chromium-based superalloys. Inconel 718 is a nickel-based superalloy that possesses high strength properties and resistance to elevated temperatures. It also demonstrates remarkable protection against corrosion and oxidation. They were initially developed for use in aircraft piston engine turbosuperchargers. Today, the most common application is in aircraft turbine components, which must withstand exposure to severely oxidizing environments and high temperatures for reasonable time periods.
• Titanium. Pure titanium is stronger than common, low-carbon steels, but 45% lighter. It is also twice as strong as weak aluminium alloys but only 60% heavier. The two most useful properties of the metal are corrosion resistance and strength-to-density ratio, the highest of any metallic element. The corrosion resistance of titanium alloys at normal temperatures is unusually high. Titanium’s corrosion resistance is based on the formation of a stable, protective oxide layer. Although “commercially pure” titanium has acceptable mechanical properties and has been used for orthopedic and dental implants, for most applications titanium is alloyed with small amounts of aluminium and vanadium, typically 6% and 4% respectively, by weight. This mixture has a solid solubility which varies dramatically with temperature, allowing it to undergo precipitation strengthening. Titanium alloys are metals that contain a mixture of titanium and other chemical elements. Such alloys have very high tensile strength and toughness (even at extreme temperatures). They are light in weight, have extraordinary corrosion resistance and the ability to withstand extreme temperatures. For example, commercially pure titanium grade 2 is very similar to grade 1, but it has higher strength than grade 1 and excellent cold forming properties. It provides excellent welding properties and has excellent resistance to oxidation and corrosion. This grade of titanium is the most common grade of the commercially pure titanium industry. It is the prime choice for many fields of applications:
  • Aerospace,
  • Automotive,
  • Chemical Processing & Chlorate Manufacturing,
  • Desalination
  • Power generation
• Aluminium. In general, aluminium alloys are characterized by a relatively low density (2.7 g/cm³ as compared to 7.9 g/cm³ for steel), high electrical and thermal conductivities, and a resistance to corrosion in some common environments, including the ambient atmosphere. Its corrosion resitance strongly depends on certain alloy. For example, duralumin is due to presence of copper susceptible to corrosion, while 6061 alloy remains resistant to corrosion even when the surface is abraded. At higher temperature and in aggressive environments, aluminium alloys have poor corrosion resistance and they also suffer from stress corrosion cracking.

Stainless Steels – Ferrous Corrosion-resistant Alloys

Although we are discussing primarily non-ferrous corrosion resistant alloys, we have to mention stainless steels. Stainless steels are defined as low-carbon steels with at least 10.5% chromium with or without other alloying elements and a maximum of 1.2% carbon by mass. Stainless steels, also known as inox steels or inox from French inoxydable (inoxidizable), are steel alloys, which are very well known for their corrosion resistance, which increases with increasing chromium content. Corrosion resistance may also be enhanced by nickel and molybdenum additions.

Austenitic stainless steels have the best corrosion resistance of all stainless steels and they have excellent cryogenic properties, and good high-temperature strength. They possess a face-centered cubic (fcc) microstructure that is nonmagnetic, and they can be easily welded. This austenite crystalline structure is achieved by sufficient additions of the austenite stabilizing elements nickel, manganese and nitrogen. Austenitic stainless steel is the largest family of stainless steels, making up about two-thirds of all stainless steel production.

The resistance of these metallic alloys to the chemical effects of corrosive  agents is based on passivation. For passivation to occur and remain stable, the Fe-Cr alloy must have a minimum chromium content of about 10.5% by weight, above which passivity can occur and below which it is impossible. Strength and corrosion resistance of stainless steel often make it the material of choice in transportation and processing equipment, engine parts, and firearms. Most of the structural applications occur in the chemical and power engineering industries, which account for more than third of the market for stainless steel products. The wide variety of applications includes nuclear reactor vessels, heat exchangers.

See above:
Corrosion-resistant Alloys

Light metals and its alloys are materials of relatively low density and high strength-to-weight ratios.  These metals and alloys are of great importance in engineering applications for use in land, sea, air, and space transportation. Magnesium, aluminium and titanium are light metals of significant commercial importance. These three metals and their alloys comprise the bulk of the high strength-to-weight ratio metallic materials used in industrial systems. Aluminium is the most versatile of these materials and titanium is the most corrosion resistant with very high strength, while magnesium has the lowest density. Their densities of 1.7 (magnesium), 2.7 (aluminium) and 4.5 g/cm³ (titanium) range from 19 to 56% of the densities of the older structural metals, iron (7.9g/cm³) and copper (8.9 g/cm³). The metals commonly classed as light metals are those whose density is less than the density of steel (7.8 g/cm³, or 0.28 lb/in.³).

Since these pure metals are usually softer materials with insufficient strength, they must be alloyed to reach target mechanical properties. For example, high purity aluminium is a soft material with the ultimate strength of approximately 10 MPa, which limits its usability in industrial applications. On the other hand, tensile strength of 6061 aluminium alloy may reach more than 290 MPa depending on the temper of the material. Therefore, we are discussing primarily the alloys instead of pure metals.

Thermal Properties of Light Metals and Alloys

Thermal properties of materials refer to the response of materials to changes in their thermodynamics/thermodynamic-properties/what-is-temperature-physics/”>temperature and to the application of heat. As a solid absorbs thermodynamics/what-is-energy-physics/”>energy in the form of heat, its temperature rises and its dimensions increase. But different materials react to the application of heat differently.

Heat capacity, thermal expansion, and thermal conductivity are properties that are often critical in the practical use of solids.

Melting Point of Light Metals and Alloys

Melting point of 6061 aluminium alloy is around 600°C.

Melting point of Elektron 21 – UNS M12310 is around 550 – 640°C.

Melting point of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is around 1660°C.

In general, melting is a phase change of a substance from the solid to the liquid phase. The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which this phase change occurs. The melting point also defines a condition in which the solid and liquid can exist in equilibrium.

Thermal Conductivity of Light Metals and Alloys

The thermal conductivity of 6061 aluminium alloy is 150 W/(m.K).

The thermal conductivity of Elektron 21 – UNS M12310 is 116 W/(m.K).

The thermal conductivity of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is 6.7 W/(m.K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

The thermal conductivity of most liquids and solids varies with temperature. For vapors, it also depends upon pressure. In general:

Most materials are very nearly homogeneous, therefore we can usually write k = k (T). Similar definitions are associated with thermal conductivities in the y- and z-directions (ky, kz), but for an isotropic material the thermal conductivity is independent of the direction of transfer, kx = ky = kz = k.

See above:
Light Alloys

Light metals and its alloys are materials of relatively low density and high strength-to-weight ratios.  These metals and alloys are of great importance in engineering applications for use in land, sea, air, and space transportation. Magnesium, aluminium and titanium are light metals of significant commercial importance. These three metals and their alloys comprise the bulk of the high strength-to-weight ratio metallic materials used in industrial systems. Aluminium is the most versatile of these materials and titanium is the most corrosion resistant with very high strength, while magnesium has the lowest density. Their densities of 1.7 (magnesium), 2.7 (aluminium) and 4.5 g/cm³ (titanium) range from 19 to 56% of the densities of the older structural metals, iron (7.9g/cm³) and copper (8.9 g/cm³). The metals commonly classed as light metals are those whose density is less than the density of steel (7.8 g/cm³, or 0.28 lb/in.³).

Since these pure metals are usually softer materials with insufficient strength, they must be alloyed to reach target mechanical properties. For example, high purity aluminium is a soft material with the ultimate strength of approximately 10 MPa, which limits its usability in industrial applications. On the other hand, tensile strength of 6061 aluminium alloy may reach more than 290 MPa depending on the temper of the material. Therefore, we are discussing primarily the alloys instead of pure metals.

Composition of Light Alloys

As was written, magnesium, aluminium and titanium are light metals of significant commercial importance. These three metals and their alloys comprise the bulk of the high strength-to-weight ratio metallic materials used in industrial systems. Aluminium is the most versatile of these materials and titanium is the most corrosion resistant with very high strength, while magnesium has the lowest density. In addition to these metals, beryllium is also a high-strength, lightweight metal with very high elastic modulus (303 GPa) that is finding increasing use as a structural material in aerospace vehicles. The elastic modulus of beryllium is nearly three times that of titanium.

• Aluminium Alloys. Mechanical properties of aluminium alloys highly depend on their phase composition and microstructure. High strength can be achieved among others by introduction of a high volume fraction of fine, homogeneously distributed second phase particles and by a refinement of the grain size. In general, aluminium alloys are characterized by a relatively low density (2.7 g/cm³ as compared to 7.9 g/cm³ for steel), high electrical and thermal conductivities, and a resistance to corrosion in some common environments, including the ambient atmosphere. The chief limitation of aluminum is its low melting temperature (660°C), which restricts the maximum temperature at which it can be used. For general production the 5000 and 6000 series alloys provide adequate strength combined with good corrosion resistance, high toughness and ease of welding. Aluminium and its alloys are used widely in aerospace, automotive, architectural, lithographic, packaging, electrical and electronic  applications.
• Magnesium Alloys. Magnesium alloys are mixtures of magnesium and other alloying metal, usually aluminium, zinc, silicon, manganese, copper and zirconium. Since the most outstanding characteristic of magnesium is its density, 1.7 g/cm³, its alloys are used where light weight is an important consideration (e.g., in aircraft components).  Magnesium has the lowest melting (923 K (1,202 °F)) of all the alkaline earth metals. Magnesium alloys are typically used as cast alloys. Despite the reactive nature of the pure magnesium powder, magnesium metal and its alloys have good resistance to corrosion. We must add,  pure magnesium is highly flammable, especially when powdered or shaved into thin strips, though it is difficult to ignite in mass or bulk. It produces intense, bright, white light when it burns. Flame temperatures of magnesium and some magnesium alloys can reach 3,100°C.
• Titanium Alloys. Titanium alloys are metals that contain a mixture of titanium and other chemical elements. Such alloys have very high tensile strength and toughness (even at extreme temperatures). They are light in weight, have extraordinary corrosion resistance and the ability to withstand extreme temperatures. Although “commercially pure” titanium has acceptable mechanical properties and has been used for orthopedic and dental implants, for most applications titanium is alloyed with small amounts of aluminium and vanadium, typically 6% and 4% respectively, by weight. This mixture has a solid solubility which varies dramatically with temperature, allowing it to undergo precipitation strengthening.

 

See above:
Light Alloys

Light metals and its alloys are materials of relatively low density and high strength-to-weight ratios.  These metals and alloys are of great importance in engineering applications for use in land, sea, air, and space transportation. Magnesium, aluminium and titanium are light metals of significant commercial importance. These three metals and their alloys comprise the bulk of the high strength-to-weight ratio metallic materials used in industrial systems. Aluminium is the most versatile of these materials and titanium is the most corrosion resistant with very high strength, while magnesium has the lowest density. Their densities of 1.7 (magnesium), 2.7 (aluminium) and 4.5 g/cm³ (titanium) range from 19 to 56% of the densities of the older structural metals, iron (7.9g/cm³) and copper (8.9 g/cm³). The metals commonly classed as light metals are those whose density is less than the density of steel (7.8 g/cm³, or 0.28 lb/in.³).

Since these pure metals are usually softer materials with insufficient strength, they must be alloyed to reach target mechanical properties. For example, high purity aluminium is a soft material with the ultimate strength of approximately 10 MPa, which limits its usability in industrial applications. On the other hand, tensile strength of 6061 aluminium alloy may reach more than 290 MPa depending on the temper of the material. Therefore, we are discussing primarily the alloys instead of pure metals.

Density of Light Metals and Alloys

Density of typical aluminium alloy is 2.7 g/cm³ (6061 alloy).

Density of typical magnesium alloy is 1.8 g/cm³ (Elektron 21).

Density of typical titanium alloy is 4.43 g/cm³ (Ti-6Al-4V).

Density is defined as the mass per unit volume. It is an intensive property, which is mathematically defined as mass divided by volume:

ρ = m/V

In words, the density (ρ) of a substance is the total mass (m) of that substance divided by the total volume (V) occupied by that substance. The standard SI unit is kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³). The Standard English unit is pounds mass per cubic foot (lbm/ft³).

Since the density (ρ) of a substance is the total mass (m) of that substance divided by the total volume (V) occupied by that substance, it is obvious, the density of a substance strongly depends on its atomic mass and also on the atomic number density (N; atoms/cm³),

• Atomic Weight. The atomic mass is carried by the atomic nucleus, which occupies only about 10^-12 of the total volume of the atom or less, but it contains all the positive charge and at least 99.95% of the total mass of the atom. Therefore it is determined by the mass number (number of protons and neutrons).
• Atomic Number Density. The atomic number density (N; atoms/cm³), which is associated with atomic radii, is the number of atoms of a given type per unit volume (V; cm³) of the material. The atomic number density (N; atoms/cm³) of a pure material having atomic or molecular weight (M; grams/mol) and the material density (⍴; gram/cm³) is easily computed from the following equation using Avogadro’s number (N_A = 6.022×10²³ atoms or molecules per mole):
• Crystal Structure. Density of crystalline substance is significantly affected by its crystal structure. FCC structure, along with its hexagonal relative (hcp), has the most efficient packing factor (74%). Metals containing FCC structures include austenite, aluminum, copper, lead, silver, gold, nickel, platinum, and thorium.

See above:
Light Alloys

Light metals and its alloys are materials of relatively low density and high strength-to-weight ratios.  These metals and alloys are of great importance in engineering applications for use in land, sea, air, and space transportation. Magnesium, aluminium and titanium are light metals of significant commercial importance. These three metals and their alloys comprise the bulk of the high strength-to-weight ratio metallic materials used in industrial systems. Aluminium is the most versatile of these materials and titanium is the most corrosion resistant with very high strength, while magnesium has the lowest density. Their densities of 1.7 (magnesium), 2.7 (aluminium) and 4.5 g/cm³ (titanium) range from 19 to 56% of the densities of the older structural metals, iron (7.9g/cm³) and copper (8.9 g/cm³). The metals commonly classed as light metals are those whose density is less than the density of steel (7.8 g/cm³, or 0.28 lb/in.³).

Since these pure metals are usually softer materials with insufficient strength, they must be alloyed to reach target mechanical properties. For example, high purity aluminium is a soft material with the ultimate strength of approximately 10 MPa, which limits its usability in industrial applications. On the other hand, tensile strength of 6061 aluminium alloy may reach more than 290 MPa depending on the temper of the material. Therefore, we are discussing primarily the alloys instead of pure metals.

Strength of Light Metals and Alloys

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

Ultimate Tensile Strength

Ultimate tensile strength of 6061 aluminium alloy depends greatly on the temper of the material, but for T6 temper it is about 290 MPa.

Ultimate tensile strength of Elektron 21 – UNS M12310 is about 280 MPa.

Ultimate tensile strength of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is about 1170 MPa.

The ultimate tensile strength is the maximum on the engineering stress-strain curve. This corresponds to the maximum stress that can be sustained by a structure in tension. Ultimate tensile strength is often shortened to “tensile strength” or even to “the ultimate.”  If this stress is applied and maintained, fracture will result. Often, this value is significantly more than the yield stress (as much as 50 to 60 percent more than the yield for some types of metals). When a ductile material reaches its ultimate strength, it experiences necking where the cross-sectional area reduces locally. The stress-strain curve contains no higher stress than the ultimate strength. Even though deformations can continue to increase, the stress usually decreases after the ultimate strength has been achieved. It is an intensive property; therefore its value does not depend on the size of the test specimen. However, it is dependent on other factors, such as the preparation of the specimen, the presence or otherwise of surface defects, and the temperature of the test environment and material. Ultimate tensile strengths vary from 50 MPa for an aluminum to as high as 3000 MPa for very high-strength steels.

Yield Strength

Yield strength of 6061 aluminium alloy depends greatly on the temper of the material, but for T6 temper it is about 240 MPa.

Yield strength of Elektron 21 – UNS M12310 is about 145 MPa.

Yield strength of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is about 1100 MPa.

The yield point is the point on a stress-strain curve that indicates the limit of elastic behavior and the beginning plastic behavior. Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins. Prior to the yield point, the material will deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. Once the yield point is passed, some fraction of the deformation will be permanent and non-reversible. Some steels and other materials exhibit a behaviour termed a yield point phenomenon. Yield strengths vary from 35 MPa for a low-strength aluminum to greater than 1400 MPa for very high-strength steels.

Young’s Modulus of Elasticity

Young’s modulus of elasticity of 6061 aluminium alloy is about 69 GPa.

Young’s modulus of elasticity of Elektron 21 – UNS M12310 is about 45 GPa.

Young’s modulus of elasticity of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is about 114 GPa.

The Young’s modulus of elasticity is the elastic modulus for tensile and compressive stress in the linear elasticity regime of a uniaxial deformation and is usually assessed by tensile tests. Up to a limiting stress, a body will be able to recover its dimensions on removal of the load. The applied stresses cause the atoms in a crystal to move from their equilibrium position. All the atoms are displaced the same amount and still maintain their relative geometry. When the stresses are removed, all the atoms return to their original positions and no permanent deformation occurs. According to the Hooke’s law, the stress is proportional to the strain (in the elastic region), and the slope is Young’s modulus. Young’s modulus is equal to the longitudinal stress divided by the strain.

Hardness of Light Metals and Alloys

Brinell hardness of 6061 aluminium alloy depends greatly on the temper of the material, but for T6 temper it is approximately 95 MPa.

Brinell hardness of Elektron 21 – UNS M12310 is approximately 70 HB.

Rockwell hardness of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is approximately 41 HRC.

Rockwell hardness test is one of the most common indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In contrast to Brinell test, the Rockwell tester measures the depth of penetration of an indenter under a large load (major load) compared to the penetration made by a preload (minor load). The minor load establishes the zero position. The major load is applied, then removed while still maintaining the minor load. The difference between depth of penetration before and after application of the major load is used to calculate the Rockwell hardness number. That is, the penetration depth and hardness are inversely proportional. The chief advantage of Rockwell hardness is its ability to display hardness values directly. The result is a dimensionless number noted as HRA, HRB, HRC, etc., where the last letter is the respective Rockwell scale.

The Rockwell C test is performed with a Brale penetrator (120°diamond cone) and a major load of 150kg.

See above:
Light Alloys

Light metals and its alloys are materials of relatively low density and high strength-to-weight ratios.  These metals and alloys are of great importance in engineering applications for use in land, sea, air, and space transportation. Magnesium, aluminium and titanium are light metals of significant commercial importance. These three metals and their alloys comprise the bulk of the high strength-to-weight ratio metallic materials used in industrial systems. Aluminium is the most versatile of these materials and titanium is the most corrosion resistant with very high strength, while magnesium has the lowest density. Their densities of 1.7 (magnesium), 2.7 (aluminium) and 4.5 g/cm³ (titanium) range from 19 to 56% of the densities of the older structural metals, iron (7.9g/cm³) and copper (8.9 g/cm³). The metals commonly classed as light metals are those whose density is less than the density of steel (7.8 g/cm³, or 0.28 lb/in.³).

Since these pure metals are usually softer materials with insufficient strength, they must be alloyed to reach target mechanical properties. For example, high purity aluminium is a soft material with the ultimate strength of approximately 10 MPa, which limits its usability in industrial applications. On the other hand, tensile strength of 6061 aluminium alloy may reach more than 290 MPa depending on the temper of the material. Therefore, we are discussing primarily the alloys instead of pure metals.

Types of Light Alloys

As was written, magnesium, aluminium and titanium are light metals of significant commercial importance. These three metals and their alloys comprise the bulk of the high strength-to-weight ratio metallic materials used in industrial systems. Aluminium is the most versatile of these materials and titanium is the most corrosion resistant with very high strength, while magnesium has the lowest density. In addition to these metals, beryllium is also a high-strength, lightweight metal with very high elastic modulus (303 GPa) that is finding increasing use as a structural material in aerospace vehicles. The elastic modulus of beryllium is nearly three times that of titanium.

• Aluminium Alloys. Mechanical properties of aluminium alloys highly depend on their phase composition and microstructure. High strength can be achieved among others by introduction of a high volume fraction of fine, homogeneously distributed second phase particles and by a refinement of the grain size. In general, aluminium alloys are characterized by a relatively low density (2.7 g/cm³ as compared to 7.9 g/cm³ for steel), high electrical and thermal conductivities, and a resistance to corrosion in some common environments, including the ambient atmosphere. The chief limitation of aluminum is its low melting temperature (660°C), which restricts the maximum temperature at which it can be used. For general production the 5000 and 6000 series alloys provide adequate strength combined with good corrosion resistance, high toughness and ease of welding. Aluminium and its alloys are used widely in aerospace, automotive, architectural, lithographic, packaging, electrical and electronic  applications.
• Magnesium Alloys. Magnesium alloys are mixtures of magnesium and other alloying metal, usually aluminium, zinc, silicon, manganese, copper and zirconium. Since the most outstanding characteristic of magnesium is its density, 1.7 g/cm³, its alloys are used where light weight is an important consideration (e.g., in aircraft components).  Magnesium has the lowest melting (923 K (1,202 °F)) of all the alkaline earth metals. Magnesium alloys are typically used as cast alloys. Despite the reactive nature of the pure magnesium powder, magnesium metal and its alloys have good resistance to corrosion. We must add,  pure magnesium is highly flammable, especially when powdered or shaved into thin strips, though it is difficult to ignite in mass or bulk. It produces intense, bright, white light when it burns. Flame temperatures of magnesium and some magnesium alloys can reach 3,100°C.
• Titanium Alloys. Titanium alloys are metals that contain a mixture of titanium and other chemical elements. Such alloys have very high tensile strength and toughness (even at extreme temperatures). They are light in weight, have extraordinary corrosion resistance and the ability to withstand extreme temperatures. Although “commercially pure” titanium has acceptable mechanical properties and has been used for orthopedic and dental implants, for most applications titanium is alloyed with small amounts of aluminium and vanadium, typically 6% and 4% respectively, by weight. This mixture has a solid solubility which varies dramatically with temperature, allowing it to undergo precipitation strengthening.

 

See above:
Light Alloys

Light metals and its alloys are materials of relatively low density and high strength-to-weight ratios.  These metals and alloys are of great importance in engineering applications for use in land, sea, air, and space transportation. Magnesium, aluminium and titanium are light metals of significant commercial importance. These three metals and their alloys comprise the bulk of the high strength-to-weight ratio metallic materials used in industrial systems. Aluminium is the most versatile of these materials and titanium is the most corrosion resistant with very high strength, while magnesium has the lowest density. Their densities of 1.7 (magnesium), 2.7 (aluminium) and 4.5 g/cm³ (titanium) range from 19 to 56% of the densities of the older structural metals, iron (7.9g/cm³) and copper (8.9 g/cm³). The metals commonly classed as light metals are those whose density is less than the density of steel (7.8 g/cm³, or 0.28 lb/in.³).

Since these pure metals are usually softer materials with insufficient strength, they must be alloyed to reach target mechanical properties. For example, high purity aluminium is a soft material with the ultimate strength of approximately 10 MPa, which limits its usability in industrial applications. On the other hand, tensile strength of 6061 aluminium alloy may reach more than 290 MPa depending on the temper of the material. Therefore, we are discussing primarily the alloys instead of pure metals.

Properties of Light Metals and Alloys

Material properties are intensive properties, that means they are independent of the amount of mass and may vary from place to place within the system at any moment. The basis of materials science involves studying the structure of materials, and relating them to their properties (mechanical, electrical etc.). Once a materials scientist knows about this structure-property correlation, they can then go on to study the relative performance of a material in a given application. The major determinants of the structure of a material and thus of its properties are its constituent chemical elements and the way in which it has been processed into its final form.

Density of Light Metals and Alloys

Density of typical aluminium alloy is 2.7 g/cm³ (6061 alloy).

Density of typical magnesium alloy is 1.8 g/cm³ (Elektron 21).

Density of typical titanium alloy is 4.43 g/cm³ (Ti-6Al-4V).

Density is defined as the mass per unit volume. It is an intensive property, which is mathematically defined as mass divided by volume:

ρ = m/V

In words, the density (ρ) of a substance is the total mass (m) of that substance divided by the total volume (V) occupied by that substance. The standard SI unit is kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³). The Standard English unit is pounds mass per cubic foot (lbm/ft³).

Since the density (ρ) of a substance is the total mass (m) of that substance divided by the total volume (V) occupied by that substance, it is obvious, the density of a substance strongly depends on its atomic mass and also on the atomic number density (N; atoms/cm³),

• Atomic Weight. The atomic mass is carried by the atomic nucleus, which occupies only about 10^-12 of the total volume of the atom or less, but it contains all the positive charge and at least 99.95% of the total mass of the atom. Therefore it is determined by the mass number (number of protons and neutrons).
• Atomic Number Density. The atomic number density (N; atoms/cm³), which is associated with atomic radii, is the number of atoms of a given type per unit volume (V; cm³) of the material. The atomic number density (N; atoms/cm³) of a pure material having atomic or molecular weight (M; grams/mol) and the material density (⍴; gram/cm³) is easily computed from the following equation using Avogadro’s number (N_A = 6.022×10²³ atoms or molecules per mole):
• Crystal Structure. Density of crystalline substance is significantly affected by its crystal structure. FCC structure, along with its hexagonal relative (hcp), has the most efficient packing factor (74%). Metals containing FCC structures include austenite, aluminum, copper, lead, silver, gold, nickel, platinum, and thorium.

Mechanical Properties of Light Metals and Alloys

Materials are frequently chosen for various applications because they have desirable combinations of mechanical characteristics. For structural applications, material properties are crucial and engineers must take them into account.

Strength of Light Metals and Alloys

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

Ultimate Tensile Strength

Ultimate tensile strength of 6061 aluminium alloy depends greatly on the temper of the material, but for T6 temper it is about 290 MPa.

Ultimate tensile strength of Elektron 21 – UNS M12310 is about 280 MPa.

Ultimate tensile strength of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is about 1170 MPa.

The ultimate tensile strength is the maximum on the engineering stress-strain curve. This corresponds to the maximum stress that can be sustained by a structure in tension. Ultimate tensile strength is often shortened to “tensile strength” or even to “the ultimate.”  If this stress is applied and maintained, fracture will result. Often, this value is significantly more than the yield stress (as much as 50 to 60 percent more than the yield for some types of metals). When a ductile material reaches its ultimate strength, it experiences necking where the cross-sectional area reduces locally. The stress-strain curve contains no higher stress than the ultimate strength. Even though deformations can continue to increase, the stress usually decreases after the ultimate strength has been achieved. It is an intensive property; therefore its value does not depend on the size of the test specimen. However, it is dependent on other factors, such as the preparation of the specimen, the presence or otherwise of surface defects, and the temperature of the test environment and material. Ultimate tensile strengths vary from 50 MPa for an aluminum to as high as 3000 MPa for very high-strength steels.

Yield Strength

Yield strength of 6061 aluminium alloy depends greatly on the temper of the material, but for T6 temper it is about 240 MPa.

Yield strength of Elektron 21 – UNS M12310 is about 145 MPa.

Yield strength of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is about 1100 MPa.

The yield point is the point on a stress-strain curve that indicates the limit of elastic behavior and the beginning plastic behavior. Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins. Prior to the yield point, the material will deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. Once the yield point is passed, some fraction of the deformation will be permanent and non-reversible. Some steels and other materials exhibit a behaviour termed a yield point phenomenon. Yield strengths vary from 35 MPa for a low-strength aluminum to greater than 1400 MPa for very high-strength steels.

Young’s Modulus of Elasticity

Young’s modulus of elasticity of 6061 aluminium alloy is about 69 GPa.

Young’s modulus of elasticity of Elektron 21 – UNS M12310 is about 45 GPa.

Young’s modulus of elasticity of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is about 114 GPa.

The Young’s modulus of elasticity is the elastic modulus for tensile and compressive stress in the linear elasticity regime of a uniaxial deformation and is usually assessed by tensile tests. Up to a limiting stress, a body will be able to recover its dimensions on removal of the load. The applied stresses cause the atoms in a crystal to move from their equilibrium position. All the atoms are displaced the same amount and still maintain their relative geometry. When the stresses are removed, all the atoms return to their original positions and no permanent deformation occurs. According to the Hooke’s law, the stress is proportional to the strain (in the elastic region), and the slope is Young’s modulus. Young’s modulus is equal to the longitudinal stress divided by the strain.

Hardness of Light Metals and Alloys

Brinell hardness of 6061 aluminium alloy depends greatly on the temper of the material, but for T6 temper it is approximately 95 MPa.

Brinell hardness of Elektron 21 – UNS M12310 is approximately 70 HB.

Rockwell hardness of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is approximately 41 HRC.

Rockwell hardness test is one of the most common indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In contrast to Brinell test, the Rockwell tester measures the depth of penetration of an indenter under a large load (major load) compared to the penetration made by a preload (minor load). The minor load establishes the zero position. The major load is applied, then removed while still maintaining the minor load. The difference between depth of penetration before and after application of the major load is used to calculate the Rockwell hardness number. That is, the penetration depth and hardness are inversely proportional. The chief advantage of Rockwell hardness is its ability to display hardness values directly. The result is a dimensionless number noted as HRA, HRB, HRC, etc., where the last letter is the respective Rockwell scale.

The Rockwell C test is performed with a Brale penetrator (120°diamond cone) and a major load of 150kg.

 

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Light Alloys

Light alloys are used widely in aerospace, automotive, architectural, lithographic, packaging, electrical and electronic  applications. They are the prime material of construction for the aircraft industry throughout most of its history. About 70% of commercial civil aircraft airframes are made from aluminium alloys, and without aluminium civil aviation would not be economically viable. One kilogram of metal saved in the design and construction of an aircraft can result in important weight savings construction costs and in total fuel requirements.

Other metals, such as steel and titanium, are sometimes used to build aircraft. Steel is heavy though, so not too much is used. Titanium is almost as strong as steel, has a medium weight, is heat resistant, and is corrosion resistant. For example, the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, the world’s fastest jet-propelled aircraft, is made of titanium. In some cases, these light alloys may be replaced by composite materials especially those made from glass fibers, carbon fibers, and Kevlar These composite materials are strong, but can weigh half as much as aluminium. These lightweight, customizable materials are becoming more popular. More than half of the materials used to make the Boeing 787 Dreamliner are composites.

Metal-based light alloys may be also used for parts that operate at high speeds and thus must be light weight to minimize inertial forces. Other commercial applications include hand-held tools, laptops, luggage, and ladders, automobiles (e.g., steering wheels and columns, seat frames, transmission cases).

Types of Light Alloys

As was written, magnesium, aluminium and titanium are light metals of significant commercial importance. These three metals and their alloys comprise the bulk of the high strength-to-weight ratio metallic materials used in industrial systems. Aluminium is the most versatile of these materials and titanium is the most corrosion resistant with very high strength, while magnesium has the lowest density. In addition to these metals, beryllium is also a high-strength, lightweight metal with very high elastic modulus (303 GPa) that is finding increasing use as a structural material in aerospace vehicles. The elastic modulus of beryllium is nearly three times that of titanium.

• Aluminium Alloys. Mechanical properties of aluminium alloys highly depend on their phase composition and microstructure. High strength can be achieved among others by introduction of a high volume fraction of fine, homogeneously distributed second phase particles and by a refinement of the grain size. In general, aluminium alloys are characterized by a relatively low density (2.7 g/cm³ as compared to 7.9 g/cm³ for steel), high electrical and thermal conductivities, and a resistance to corrosion in some common environments, including the ambient atmosphere. The chief limitation of aluminum is its low melting temperature (660°C), which restricts the maximum temperature at which it can be used. For general production the 5000 and 6000 series alloys provide adequate strength combined with good corrosion resistance, high toughness and ease of welding. Aluminium and its alloys are used widely in aerospace, automotive, architectural, lithographic, packaging, electrical and electronic  applications.
• Magnesium Alloys. Magnesium alloys are mixtures of magnesium and other alloying metal, usually aluminium, zinc, silicon, manganese, copper and zirconium. Since the most outstanding characteristic of magnesium is its density, 1.7 g/cm³, its alloys are used where light weight is an important consideration (e.g., in aircraft components).  Magnesium has the lowest melting (923 K (1,202 °F)) of all the alkaline earth metals. Magnesium alloys are typically used as cast alloys. Despite the reactive nature of the pure magnesium powder, magnesium metal and its alloys have good resistance to corrosion. We must add,  pure magnesium is highly flammable, especially when powdered or shaved into thin strips, though it is difficult to ignite in mass or bulk. It produces intense, bright, white light when it burns. Flame temperatures of magnesium and some magnesium alloys can reach 3,100°C.
• Titanium Alloys. Titanium alloys are metals that contain a mixture of titanium and other chemical elements. Such alloys have very high tensile strength and toughness (even at extreme temperatures). They are light in weight, have extraordinary corrosion resistance and the ability to withstand extreme temperatures. Although “commercially pure” titanium has acceptable mechanical properties and has been used for orthopedic and dental implants, for most applications titanium is alloyed with small amounts of aluminium and vanadium, typically 6% and 4% respectively, by weight. This mixture has a solid solubility which varies dramatically with temperature, allowing it to undergo precipitation strengthening.

Density of Light Metals and Alloys

Density of typical aluminium alloy is 2.7 g/cm³ (6061 alloy).

Density of typical magnesium alloy is 1.8 g/cm³ (Elektron 21).

Density of typical titanium alloy is 4.43 g/cm³ (Ti-6Al-4V).

Strength of Light Metals and Alloys

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

Ultimate Tensile Strength

Ultimate tensile strength of 6061 aluminium alloy depends greatly on the temper of the material, but for T6 temper it is about 290 MPa.

Ultimate tensile strength of Elektron 21 – UNS M12310 is about 280 MPa.

Ultimate tensile strength of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is about 1170 MPa.

The ultimate tensile strength is the maximum on the engineering stress-strain curve. This corresponds to the maximum stress that can be sustained by a structure in tension. Ultimate tensile strength is often shortened to “tensile strength” or even to “the ultimate.”  If this stress is applied and maintained, fracture will result. Often, this value is significantly more than the yield stress (as much as 50 to 60 percent more than the yield for some types of metals). When a ductile material reaches its ultimate strength, it experiences necking where the cross-sectional area reduces locally. The stress-strain curve contains no higher stress than the ultimate strength. Even though deformations can continue to increase, the stress usually decreases after the ultimate strength has been achieved. It is an intensive property; therefore its value does not depend on the size of the test specimen. However, it is dependent on other factors, such as the preparation of the specimen, the presence or otherwise of surface defects, and the temperature of the test environment and material. Ultimate tensile strengths vary from 50 MPa for an aluminum to as high as 3000 MPa for very high-strength steels.

Yield Strength

Yield strength of 6061 aluminium alloy depends greatly on the temper of the material, but for T6 temper it is about 240 MPa.

Yield strength of Elektron 21 – UNS M12310 is about 145 MPa.

Yield strength of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is about 1100 MPa.

The yield point is the point on a stress-strain curve that indicates the limit of elastic behavior and the beginning plastic behavior. Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins. Prior to the yield point, the material will deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. Once the yield point is passed, some fraction of the deformation will be permanent and non-reversible. Some steels and other materials exhibit a behaviour termed a yield point phenomenon. Yield strengths vary from 35 MPa for a low-strength aluminum to greater than 1400 MPa for very high-strength steels.

Young’s Modulus of Elasticity

Young’s modulus of elasticity of 6061 aluminium alloy is about 69 GPa.

Young’s modulus of elasticity of Elektron 21 – UNS M12310 is about 45 GPa.

Young’s modulus of elasticity of Ti-6Al-4V – Grade 5 titanium alloy is about 114 GPa.

The Young’s modulus of elasticity is the elastic modulus for tensile and compressive stress in the linear elasticity regime of a uniaxial deformation and is usually assessed by tensile tests. Up to a limiting stress, a body will be able to recover its dimensions on removal of the load. The applied stresses cause the atoms in a crystal to move from their equilibrium position. All the atoms are displaced the same amount and still maintain their relative geometry. When the stresses are removed, all the atoms return to their original positions and no permanent deformation occurs. According to the Hooke’s law, the stress is proportional to the strain (in the elastic region), and the slope is Young’s modulus. Young’s modulus is equal to the longitudinal stress divided by the strain.

 

See above:
Light Alloys

Light metals and its alloys are materials of relatively low density and high strength-to-weight ratios.  These metals and alloys are of great importance in engineering applications for use in land, sea, air, and space transportation. Magnesium, aluminium and titanium are light metals of significant commercial importance. These three metals and their alloys comprise the bulk of the high strength-to-weight ratio metallic materials used in industrial systems. Aluminium is the most versatile of these materials and titanium is the most corrosion resistant with very high strength, while magnesium has the lowest density. Their densities of 1.7 (magnesium), 2.7 (aluminium) and 4.5 g/cm³ (titanium) range from 19 to 56% of the densities of the older structural metals, iron (7.9g/cm³) and copper (8.9 g/cm³). The metals commonly classed as light metals are those whose density is less than the density of steel (7.8 g/cm³, or 0.28 lb/in.³).

Since these pure metals are usually softer materials with insufficient strength, they must be alloyed to reach target mechanical properties. For example, high purity aluminium is a soft material with the ultimate strength of approximately 10 MPa, which limits its usability in industrial applications. On the other hand, tensile strength of 6061 aluminium alloy may reach more than 290 MPa depending on the temper of the material. Therefore, we are discussing primarily the alloys instead of pure metals.

Application of Light Alloys

Light alloys are used widely in aerospace, automotive, architectural, lithographic, packaging, electrical and electronic  applications. They are the prime material of construction for the aircraft industry throughout most of its history. About 70% of commercial civil aircraft airframes are made from aluminium alloys, and without aluminium civil aviation would not be economically viable. One kilogram of metal saved in the design and construction of an aircraft can result in important weight savings construction costs and in total fuel requirements.

Other metals, such as steel and titanium, are sometimes used to build aircraft. Steel is heavy though, so not too much is used. Titanium is almost as strong as steel, has a medium weight, is heat resistant, and is corrosion resistant. For example, the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, the world’s fastest jet-propelled aircraft, is made of titanium. In some cases, these light alloys may be replaced by composite materials especially those made from glass fibers, carbon fibers, and Kevlar These composite materials are strong, but can weigh half as much as aluminium. These lightweight, customizable materials are becoming more popular. More than half of the materials used to make the Boeing 787 Dreamliner are composites.

Metal-based light alloys may be also used for parts that operate at high speeds and thus must be light weight to minimize inertial forces. Other commercial applications include hand-held tools, laptops, luggage, and ladders, automobiles (e.g., steering wheels and columns, seat frames, transmission cases).

See above:
Light Alloys

Pure zirconium is a lustrous, grey-white, strong transition metal that resembles hafnium and, to a lesser extent, titanium. Zirconium is mainly used as a refractory and opacifier, although small amounts are used as an alloying agent for its strong resistance to corrosion. Zirconium and its alloys are widely used as a cladding for nuclear reactor fuels. Zirconium alloyed with niobium or tin has excellent corrosion properties. The high corrosion resistance of zirconium alloys results from the natural formation of a dense stable oxide on the surface of the metal. This film is self healing, it continues to grow slowly at temperatures up to approximately 550 °C (1020 °F), and it remains tightly adherent. The desired property of these alloys is also a low neutron-capture cross-section. The disadvantages of zirconium are low strength properties and low heat resistance, which can be eliminated, for example, by alloying with niobium.

Composition of Zirconium Alloys

• Zirconium – Niobium Alloys. Zirconium alloys with niobium are used as claddings of fuel elements of VVER and RBMK reactors. These alloys are the basis material of assembly channel of RBMK reactor. The Zr + 1% Nb alloy of type N-1 E-110 is used for fuel element claddings, the Zr + 2.5% Nb alloy of type E-125 is applied for tubes of assembly channels.
• Zirconium – Tin Alloys. Zirconium alloys, in which tin is the basic alloying element, provides improvement of their mechanical properties, have a wide distribution in the USA. A common subgroup has the trade mark Zircaloy. In case of zirconium-tin alloys, the decrease of corrosion resistance in water and steam is taken place that resulted in the need for additional alloying.

The cladding material for the new 17×17 fuel designs is based also on the zirconium-niobium alloys (e.g. Optimized ZIRLO material), which has been demonstrated to have improved corrosion resistance compared with prior fuel cladding materials. The optimized tin level provides a reduced corrosion rate while maintaining the benefits of mechanical strength and resistance to accelerated corrosion from abnormal chemistry conditions.

Production of Zirconium

The production of zirconium metal requires special techniques due to the particular chemical properties of zirconium. Most Zr metal is produced from zircon (ZrSiO₄) by the reduction of the zirconium chloride with magnesium metal in the Kroll process. The key feature of the Kroll process is reduction of zirconium chloride to metallic zirconium by magnesium. Commercial non-nuclear grade zirconium typically contains 1–5% of hafnium, whose neutron absorption cross-section is 600x that of zirconium. Hafnium must therefore be almost entirely removed (reduced to < 0.02% of the alloy) for reactor applications.

Zirconium Alloys in Nuclear Industry

Fuel cladding is the outer layer of the fuel rods, standing between the reactor coolant and the nuclear fuel (i.e. fuel pellets). It is made of a corrosion-resistant material with low absorption cross section for thermal neutrons (~ 0.18 × 10^–24 cm²), usually zirconium alloy. The fuel cladding typically has an inner radius of r_Zr,2 = 0.408 cm and outer radius r_Zr,1 = 0.465 cm. In comparison to fuel pellet, there is almost no heat generation in the fuel cladding (cladding is slightly heated by radiation). All heat generated in the fuel must be transferred via conduction through the cladding and therefore the inner surface is hotter than the outer surface.

A typical composition of nuclear-grade zirconium alloys is more than 95 weight percent zirconium and less than 2% of tin, niobium, iron, chromium, nickel and other metals, which are added to improve mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. The most commonly used alloy, to date, in PWRs, has been Zircaloy 4, however currently this is being replaced by new zirconium–niobium-based alloys, exhibiting better corrosion resistance. The maximum temperature, at which zirconium alloys can be used in water cooled reactors, depends on their corrosion resistance. The most common zirconium alloys, Zircaloy-2 and Zircaloy-4, contain the strong α stabilizers tin and oxygen, plus the β stabilizers iron, chromium, and nickel. Alloys of type Zircalloy, in which tin is the basic alloying element that provides improvement of their mechanical properties, have a wide distribution in the world. However in this case, the decrease of corrosion resistance in water and steam is taken place that resulted in the need for additional alloying. The improvement brought about by the additive niobium probably involves a different mechanism. High corrosion resistance of niobium alloyed metals in water and steam at temperatures of 400–550°C is caused by their ability to passivation with formation of protective films.

See above:
Zirconium Alloys