Elements – Properties – Price – Applications – Production

About Bromine

Bromine is the third-lightest halogen, and is a fuming red-brown liquid at room temperature that evaporates readily to form a similarly coloured gas. Its properties are thus intermediate between those of chlorine and iodine.

Summary

Element	Bromine
Atomic number	35
Element category	Halogen
Phase at STP	Liquid
Density	3.12 g/cm3
Ultimate Tensile Strength	N/A
Yield Strength	N/A
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity	N/A
Mohs Scale	N/A
Brinell Hardness	N/A
Vickers Hardness	N/A
Melting Point	-7.3 °C
Boiling Point	59 °C
Thermal Conductivity	0.122 W/mK
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	— µm/mK
Specific Heat	0.473 J/g K
Heat of Fusion	5.286 kJ/mol
Heat of Vaporization	15.438 kJ/mol
Electrical resistivity [nanoOhm meter]	8E19
Magnetic Susceptibility	−56e-6 cm^3/mol

Production and Price of Bromine

Raw materials prices change daily. They are primarily driven by supply, demand and energy prices. In 2019, prices of pure Bromine were at around 49 $/kg.

The industrial production of bromine involves the direct reaction of chlorine with brine rich in bromine ions. The process is fast, simple and relatively economical. The industrial production of bromine involves the direct reaction of chlorine with brine rich in bromine ions. The process is fast, simple and relatively economical.The major areas of bromine production in the world are from salt brines found in the United Stated and China, from the Dead Sea in Israel and Jordan and from ocean water in Wales and Japan.

Source: www.luciteria.com

Mechanical Properties of Bromine

Strength of Bromine

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. In designing structures and machines, it is important to consider these factors, in order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads or forces and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

For tensile stress, the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.

See also: Strength of Materials

Ultimate Tensile Strength of Bromine

Ultimate tensile strength of Bromine is N/A.

Yield Strength of Bromine

Yield strength of Bromine is N/A.

Modulus of Elasticity of Bromine

The Young’s modulus of elasticity of Bromine is N/A.

Hardness of Bromine

In materials science, hardness is the ability to withstand surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and scratching. Brinell hardness test is one of indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Brinell hardness of Bromine is approximately N/A.

The Vickers hardness test method was developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers hardness test method can be also used as a microhardness test method, which is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.

Vickers hardness of Bromine is approximately N/A.

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The most common scale for this qualitative test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Bromine is has a hardness of approximately N/A.

See also: Hardness of Materials

Bromine – Crystal Structure

A possible crystal structure of Bromine is orthorhombic structure.

In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in regular arrays called crystals. A crystal lattice is a repeating pattern of mathematical points that extends throughout space. The forces of chemical bonding causes this repetition. It is this repeated pattern which control properties like strength, ductility, density, conductivity (property of conducting or transmitting heat, electricity, etc.), and shape. There are 14 general types of such patterns known as Bravais lattices.

See also: Crystal Structure of Materials

Crystal Structure of Bromine

Thermal Properties of Bromine

Bromine – Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point of Bromine is -7.3°C.

Boiling point of Bromine is 59°C.

Note that, these points are associated with the standard atmospheric pressure.

Bromine – Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of Bromine is 0.122 W/(m·K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Bromine

Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Bromine is — µm/(m·K)

Thermal expansion is generally the tendency of matter to change its dimensions in response to a change in temperature. It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change.

Bromine – Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat of Bromine is 0.473 J/g K.

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.

Latent Heat of Fusion of Bromine is 5.286 kJ/mol.

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Bromine is 15.438 kJ/mol.

Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.

Bromine – Electrical Resistivity – Magnetic Susceptibility

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors, semiconductors, and nonconductors.

See also: Electrical Properties

Magnetic property refers to the response of a material to an applied magnetic field. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the constituent atoms. Different materials react to the application of magnetic field differently.

See also: Magnetic Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Bromine

Electrical resistivity of Bromine is 8E19 nΩ⋅m.

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how Bromine conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Bromine

Magnetic susceptibility of Bromine is −56e-6 cm^3/mol.

In electromagnetism, magnetic susceptibility is the measure of the magnetization of a substance. Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of Bromine in response to an applied magnetic field.

About Selenium

Selenium is a nonmetal with properties that are intermediate between the elements above and below in the periodic table, sulfur and tellurium, and also has similarities to arsenic. It rarely occurs in its elemental state or as pure ore compounds in the Earth’s crust.

Summary

Element	Selenium
Atomic number	34
Element category	Non Metal
Phase at STP	Solid
Density	4.819 g/cm3
Ultimate Tensile Strength	300 MPa
Yield Strength	150 MPa
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity	10 GPa
Mohs Scale	2
Brinell Hardness	740 MPa
Vickers Hardness	N/A
Melting Point	221 °C
Boiling Point	685 °C
Thermal Conductivity	2.04 W/mK
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	37 µm/mK
Specific Heat	0.32 J/g K
Heat of Fusion	6.694 kJ/mol
Heat of Vaporization	37.7 kJ/mol
Electrical resistivity [nanoOhm meter]	—
Magnetic Susceptibility	−25e-6 cm^3/mol

Production and Price of Selenium

Raw materials prices change daily. They are primarily driven by supply, demand and energy prices. In 2019, prices of pure Selenium were at around 140 $/kg.

Selenium is most commonly produced from selenide in many sulfide ores, such as those of copper, nickel, or lead. Electrolytic metal refining is particularly productive of selenium as a byproduct, obtained from the anode mud of copper refineries. About 2,000 tonnes of selenium were produced in 2011 worldwide, mostly in Germany (650 t), Japan (630 t), Belgium (200 t), and Russia (140 t).

Source: www.luciteria.com

Mechanical Properties of Selenium

Strength of Selenium

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. In designing structures and machines, it is important to consider these factors, in order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads or forces and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

For tensile stress, the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.

See also: Strength of Materials

Ultimate Tensile Strength of Selenium

Ultimate tensile strength of Selenium is 300 MPa.

Yield Strength of Selenium

Yield strength of Selenium is 150 MPa.

Modulus of Elasticity of Selenium

The Young’s modulus of elasticity of Selenium is 10 GPa.

Hardness of Selenium

In materials science, hardness is the ability to withstand surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and scratching. Brinell hardness test is one of indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Brinell hardness of Selenium is approximately 740 MPa.

The Vickers hardness test method was developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers hardness test method can be also used as a microhardness test method, which is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.

Vickers hardness of Selenium is approximately N/A.

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The most common scale for this qualitative test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Selenium is has a hardness of approximately 2.

See also: Hardness of Materials

Selenium – Crystal Structure

A possible crystal structure of Selenium is hexagonal structure.

In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in regular arrays called crystals. A crystal lattice is a repeating pattern of mathematical points that extends throughout space. The forces of chemical bonding causes this repetition. It is this repeated pattern which control properties like strength, ductility, density, conductivity (property of conducting or transmitting heat, electricity, etc.), and shape. There are 14 general types of such patterns known as Bravais lattices.

See also: Crystal Structure of Materials

Crystal Structure of Selenium

Thermal Properties of Selenium

Selenium – Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point of Selenium is 221°C.

Boiling point of Selenium is 685°C.

Note that, these points are associated with the standard atmospheric pressure.

Selenium – Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of Selenium is 2.04 W/(m·K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Selenium

Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Selenium is 37 µm/(m·K)

Thermal expansion is generally the tendency of matter to change its dimensions in response to a change in temperature. It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change.

Selenium – Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat of Selenium is 0.32 J/g K.

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.

Latent Heat of Fusion of Selenium is 6.694 kJ/mol.

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Selenium is 37.7 kJ/mol.

Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.

Selenium – Electrical Resistivity – Magnetic Susceptibility

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors, semiconductors, and nonconductors.

See also: Electrical Properties

Magnetic property refers to the response of a material to an applied magnetic field. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the constituent atoms. Different materials react to the application of magnetic field differently.

See also: Magnetic Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Selenium

Electrical resistivity of Selenium is — nΩ⋅m.

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how Selenium conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Selenium

Magnetic susceptibility of Selenium is −25e-6 cm^3/mol.

In electromagnetism, magnetic susceptibility is the measure of the magnetization of a substance. Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of Selenium in response to an applied magnetic field.

About Arsenic

Arsenic occurs in many minerals, usually in combination with sulfur and metals, but also as a pure elemental crystal. Arsenic is a metalloid.

Summary

Element	Arsenic
Atomic number	33
Element category	Metalloids
Phase at STP	Solid
Density	5.727 g/cm3
Ultimate Tensile Strength	N/A
Yield Strength	N/A
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity	8 GPa
Mohs Scale	3.5
Brinell Hardness	1440 MPa
Vickers Hardness	N/A
Melting Point	817 °C
Boiling Point	614 °C
Thermal Conductivity	50 W/mK
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	5.6 µm/mK
Specific Heat	0.33 J/g K
Heat of Fusion	— kJ/mol
Heat of Vaporization	34.76 kJ/mol
Electrical resistivity [nanoOhm meter]	333
Magnetic Susceptibility	−5.5e-6 cm^3/mol

Production and Price of Arsenic

Raw materials prices change daily. They are primarily driven by supply, demand and energy prices. In 2019, prices of pure Arsenic were at around 3200 $/kg.

Minerals with the formula MAsS and MAs2 (M = Fe, Ni, Co) are the dominant commercial sources of arsenic, together with realgar (an arsenic sulfide mineral) and native (elemental) arsenic. In 2014, China was the top producer of white arsenic with almost 70% world share, followed by Morocco, Russia, and Belgium, according to the British Geological Survey and the United States Geological Survey.

Source: www.luciteria.com

Mechanical Properties of Arsenic

Strength of Arsenic

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. In designing structures and machines, it is important to consider these factors, in order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads or forces and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

For tensile stress, the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.

See also: Strength of Materials

Ultimate Tensile Strength of Arsenic

Ultimate tensile strength of Arsenic is N/A.

Yield Strength of Arsenic

Yield strength of Arsenic is N/A.

Modulus of Elasticity of Arsenic

The Young’s modulus of elasticity of Arsenic is 8 GPa.

Hardness of Arsenic

In materials science, hardness is the ability to withstand surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and scratching. Brinell hardness test is one of indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Brinell hardness of Arsenic is approximately 1440 MPa.

The Vickers hardness test method was developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers hardness test method can be also used as a microhardness test method, which is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.

Vickers hardness of Arsenic is approximately N/A.

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The most common scale for this qualitative test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Arsenic is has a hardness of approximately 3.5.

See also: Hardness of Materials

Arsenic – Crystal Structure

A possible crystal structure of Arsenic is rhombohedral structure.

In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in regular arrays called crystals. A crystal lattice is a repeating pattern of mathematical points that extends throughout space. The forces of chemical bonding causes this repetition. It is this repeated pattern which control properties like strength, ductility, density, conductivity (property of conducting or transmitting heat, electricity, etc.), and shape. There are 14 general types of such patterns known as Bravais lattices.

See also: Crystal Structure of Materials

Crystal Structure of Arsenic

Thermal Properties of Arsenic

Arsenic – Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point of Arsenic is 817°C.

Boiling point of Arsenic is 614°C.

Note that, these points are associated with the standard atmospheric pressure.

Arsenic – Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of Arsenic is 50 W/(m·K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Arsenic

Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Arsenic is 5.6 µm/(m·K)

Thermal expansion is generally the tendency of matter to change its dimensions in response to a change in temperature. It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change.

Arsenic – Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat of Arsenic is 0.33 J/g K.

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.

Latent Heat of Fusion of Arsenic is — kJ/mol.

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Arsenic is 34.76 kJ/mol.

Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.

Arsenic – Electrical Resistivity – Magnetic Susceptibility

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors, semiconductors, and nonconductors.

See also: Electrical Properties

Magnetic property refers to the response of a material to an applied magnetic field. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the constituent atoms. Different materials react to the application of magnetic field differently.

See also: Magnetic Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Arsenic

Electrical resistivity of Arsenic is 333 nΩ⋅m.

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how Arsenic conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Arsenic

Magnetic susceptibility of Arsenic is −5.5e-6 cm^3/mol.

In electromagnetism, magnetic susceptibility is the measure of the magnetization of a substance. Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of Arsenic in response to an applied magnetic field.

About Germanium

Germanium is a lustrous, hard, grayish-white metalloid in the carbon group, chemically similar to its group neighbors tin and silicon. Pure germanium is a semiconductor with an appearance similar to elemental silicon.

Summary

Element	Germanium
Atomic number	32
Element category	Metalloids
Phase at STP	Solid
Density	5.323 g/cm3
Ultimate Tensile Strength	135 MPa
Yield Strength	135 MPa
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity	103 GPa
Mohs Scale	6
Brinell Hardness	N/A
Vickers Hardness	N/A
Melting Point	938.3 °C
Boiling Point	2820 °C
Thermal Conductivity	59.9 W/mK
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	6 µm/mK
Specific Heat	0.32 J/g K
Heat of Fusion	36.94 kJ/mol
Heat of Vaporization	330.9 kJ/mol
Electrical resistivity [nanoOhm meter]	1E9
Magnetic Susceptibility	−76.8e-6 cm^3/mol

Production and Price of Germanium

Raw materials prices change daily. They are primarily driven by supply, demand and energy prices. In 2019, prices of pure Germanium were at around 3600 $/kg.

Source: www.luciteria.com

Mechanical Properties of Germanium

Strength of Germanium

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. In designing structures and machines, it is important to consider these factors, in order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads or forces and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

For tensile stress, the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.

See also: Strength of Materials

Ultimate Tensile Strength of Germanium

Ultimate tensile strength of Germanium is 135 MPa.

Yield Strength of Germanium

Yield strength of Germanium is 135 MPa.

Modulus of Elasticity of Germanium

The Young’s modulus of elasticity of Germanium is 103 GPa.

Hardness of Germanium

In materials science, hardness is the ability to withstand surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and scratching. Brinell hardness test is one of indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Brinell hardness of Germanium is approximately N/A.

The Vickers hardness test method was developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers hardness test method can be also used as a microhardness test method, which is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.

Vickers hardness of Germanium is approximately N/A.

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The most common scale for this qualitative test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Germanium is has a hardness of approximately 6.

See also: Hardness of Materials

Germanium – Crystal Structure

A possible crystal structure of Germanium is face-centered diamond cubic structure.

In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in regular arrays called crystals. A crystal lattice is a repeating pattern of mathematical points that extends throughout space. The forces of chemical bonding causes this repetition. It is this repeated pattern which control properties like strength, ductility, density, conductivity (property of conducting or transmitting heat, electricity, etc.), and shape. There are 14 general types of such patterns known as Bravais lattices.

See also: Crystal Structure of Materials

Crystal Structure of Germanium

Thermal Properties of Germanium

Germanium – Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point of Germanium is 938.3°C.

Boiling point of Germanium is 2820°C.

Note that, these points are associated with the standard atmospheric pressure.

Germanium – Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of Germanium is 59.9 W/(m·K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Germanium

Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Germanium is 6 µm/(m·K)

Thermal expansion is generally the tendency of matter to change its dimensions in response to a change in temperature. It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change.

Germanium – Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat of Germanium is 0.32 J/g K.

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.

Latent Heat of Fusion of Germanium is 36.94 kJ/mol.

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Germanium is 330.9 kJ/mol.

Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.

Germanium – Electrical Resistivity – Magnetic Susceptibility

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors, semiconductors, and nonconductors.

See also: Electrical Properties

Magnetic property refers to the response of a material to an applied magnetic field. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the constituent atoms. Different materials react to the application of magnetic field differently.

See also: Magnetic Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Germanium

Electrical resistivity of Germanium is 1E9 nΩ⋅m.

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how Germanium conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Germanium

Magnetic susceptibility of Germanium is −76.8e-6 cm^3/mol.

In electromagnetism, magnetic susceptibility is the measure of the magnetization of a substance. Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of Germanium in response to an applied magnetic field.

About Gallium

Gallium has similarities to the other metals of the group, aluminium, indium, and thallium. Gallium does not occur as a free element in nature, but as gallium(III) compounds in trace amounts in zinc ores and in bauxite.

Summary

Element	Gallium
Atomic number	31
Element category	Poor Metal
Phase at STP	Solid
Density	5.904 g/cm3
Ultimate Tensile Strength	15 MPa
Yield Strength	8 MPa
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity	9.8 GPa
Mohs Scale	1.5
Brinell Hardness	60 MPa
Vickers Hardness	N/A
Melting Point	29.76 °C
Boiling Point	2204 °C
Thermal Conductivity	40.6 W/mK
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	18 µm/mK
Specific Heat	0.37 J/g K
Heat of Fusion	5.59 kJ/mol
Heat of Vaporization	258.7 kJ/mol
Electrical resistivity [nanoOhm meter]	270
Magnetic Susceptibility	−21.6e-6 cm^3/mol

Production and Price of Gallium

Raw materials prices change daily. They are primarily driven by supply, demand and energy prices. In 2019, prices of pure Gallium were at around 2200 $/kg.

Current world production of gallium is about 200 mt per year, with the main producing nations being China, Germany, Kazakhstan and Ukraine. Gallium is mainly recovered as a by-product of treating bauxite (the main source of aluminium). During the processing of bauxite to alumina in the Bayer process, gallium accumulates in the sodium hydroxide liquor.

Source: www.luciteria.com

Mechanical Properties of Gallium

Strength of Gallium

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. In designing structures and machines, it is important to consider these factors, in order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads or forces and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

For tensile stress, the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.

See also: Strength of Materials

Ultimate Tensile Strength of Gallium

Ultimate tensile strength of Gallium is 15 MPa.

Yield Strength of Gallium

Yield strength of Gallium is 8 MPa.

Modulus of Elasticity of Gallium

The Young’s modulus of elasticity of Gallium is 9.8 GPa.

Hardness of Gallium

In materials science, hardness is the ability to withstand surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and scratching. Brinell hardness test is one of indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Brinell hardness of Gallium is approximately 60 MPa.

The Vickers hardness test method was developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers hardness test method can be also used as a microhardness test method, which is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.

Vickers hardness of Gallium is approximately N/A.

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The most common scale for this qualitative test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Gallium is has a hardness of approximately 1.5.

See also: Hardness of Materials

Gallium – Crystal Structure

A possible crystal structure of Gallium is orthorhombic structure.

In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in regular arrays called crystals. A crystal lattice is a repeating pattern of mathematical points that extends throughout space. The forces of chemical bonding causes this repetition. It is this repeated pattern which control properties like strength, ductility, density, conductivity (property of conducting or transmitting heat, electricity, etc.), and shape. There are 14 general types of such patterns known as Bravais lattices.

See also: Crystal Structure of Materials

Crystal Structure of Gallium

Thermal Properties of Gallium

Gallium – Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point of Gallium is 29.76°C.

Boiling point of Gallium is 2204°C.

Note that, these points are associated with the standard atmospheric pressure.

Gallium – Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of Gallium is 40.6 W/(m·K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Gallium

Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Gallium is 18 µm/(m·K)

Thermal expansion is generally the tendency of matter to change its dimensions in response to a change in temperature. It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change.

Gallium – Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat of Gallium is 0.37 J/g K.

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.

Latent Heat of Fusion of Gallium is 5.59 kJ/mol.

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Gallium is 258.7 kJ/mol.

Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.

Gallium – Electrical Resistivity – Magnetic Susceptibility

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors, semiconductors, and nonconductors.

See also: Electrical Properties

Magnetic property refers to the response of a material to an applied magnetic field. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the constituent atoms. Different materials react to the application of magnetic field differently.

See also: Magnetic Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Gallium

Electrical resistivity of Gallium is 270 nΩ⋅m.

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how Gallium conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Gallium

Magnetic susceptibility of Gallium is −21.6e-6 cm^3/mol.

In electromagnetism, magnetic susceptibility is the measure of the magnetization of a substance. Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of Gallium in response to an applied magnetic field.

About Zinc

In some respects zinc is chemically similar to magnesium: both elements exhibit only one normal oxidation state (+2), and the Zn2+ and Mg2+ ions are of similar size.

Summary

Element	Zinc
Atomic number	30
Element category	Transition Metal
Phase at STP	Solid
Density	7.14 g/cm3
Ultimate Tensile Strength	90 MPa
Yield Strength	75 MPa
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity	108 GPa
Mohs Scale	2.5
Brinell Hardness	330 MPa
Vickers Hardness	N/A
Melting Point	419.53 °C
Boiling Point	907 °C
Thermal Conductivity	116 W/mK
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	30.2 µm/mK
Specific Heat	0.39 J/g K
Heat of Fusion	7.322 kJ/mol
Heat of Vaporization	115.3 kJ/mol
Electrical resistivity [nanoOhm meter]	59
Magnetic Susceptibility	−11.4e-6 cm^3/mol

Production and Price of Zinc

Raw materials prices change daily. They are primarily driven by supply, demand and energy prices. In 2019, prices of pure Zinc were at around 37 $/kg.

The world’s largest zinc producer is Nyrstar, a merger of the Australian OZ Minerals and the Belgian Umicore. About 70% of the world’s zinc originates from mining, while the remaining 30% comes from recycling secondary zinc.

Source: www.luciteria.com

Mechanical Properties of Zinc

Strength of Zinc

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. In designing structures and machines, it is important to consider these factors, in order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads or forces and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

For tensile stress, the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.

See also: Strength of Materials

Ultimate Tensile Strength of Zinc

Ultimate tensile strength of Zinc is 90 MPa.

Yield Strength of Zinc

Yield strength of Zinc is 75 MPa.

Modulus of Elasticity of Zinc

The Young’s modulus of elasticity of Zinc is 108 GPa.

Hardness of Zinc

In materials science, hardness is the ability to withstand surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and scratching. Brinell hardness test is one of indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Brinell hardness of Zinc is approximately 330 MPa.

The Vickers hardness test method was developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers hardness test method can be also used as a microhardness test method, which is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.

Vickers hardness of Zinc is approximately N/A.

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The most common scale for this qualitative test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Zinc is has a hardness of approximately 2.5.

See also: Hardness of Materials

Zinc – Crystal Structure

A possible crystal structure of Zinc is hexagonal close-packed structure.

In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in regular arrays called crystals. A crystal lattice is a repeating pattern of mathematical points that extends throughout space. The forces of chemical bonding causes this repetition. It is this repeated pattern which control properties like strength, ductility, density, conductivity (property of conducting or transmitting heat, electricity, etc.), and shape. There are 14 general types of such patterns known as Bravais lattices.

See also: Crystal Structure of Materials

Crystal Structure of Zinc

Thermal Properties of Zinc

Zinc – Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point of Zinc is 419.53°C.

Boiling point of Zinc is 907°C.

Note that, these points are associated with the standard atmospheric pressure.

Zinc – Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of Zinc is 116 W/(m·K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Zinc

Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Zinc is 30.2 µm/(m·K)

Thermal expansion is generally the tendency of matter to change its dimensions in response to a change in temperature. It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change.

Zinc – Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat of Zinc is 0.39 J/g K.

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.

Latent Heat of Fusion of Zinc is 7.322 kJ/mol.

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Zinc is 115.3 kJ/mol.

Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.

Zinc – Electrical Resistivity – Magnetic Susceptibility

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors, semiconductors, and nonconductors.

See also: Electrical Properties

Magnetic property refers to the response of a material to an applied magnetic field. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the constituent atoms. Different materials react to the application of magnetic field differently.

See also: Magnetic Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Zinc

Electrical resistivity of Zinc is 59 nΩ⋅m.

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how Zinc conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Zinc

Magnetic susceptibility of Zinc is −11.4e-6 cm^3/mol.

In electromagnetism, magnetic susceptibility is the measure of the magnetization of a substance. Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of Zinc in response to an applied magnetic field.

About Copper

Copper is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a reddish-orange color. Copper is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, as a building material, and as a constituent of various metal alloys, such as sterling silver used in jewelry, cupronickel used to make marine hardware and coins, and constantan used in strain gauges and thermocouples for temperature measurement.

Summary

Element	Copper
Atomic number	29
Element category	Transition Metal
Phase at STP	Solid
Density	8.92 g/cm3
Ultimate Tensile Strength	210 MPa
Yield Strength	33 MPa
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity	120 GPa
Mohs Scale	3
Brinell Hardness	250 MPa
Vickers Hardness	350 MPa
Melting Point	1084.62 °C
Boiling Point	2562 °C
Thermal Conductivity	401 W/mK
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	16.5 µm/mK
Specific Heat	0.38 J/g K
Heat of Fusion	13.05 kJ/mol
Heat of Vaporization	300.3 kJ/mol
Electrical resistivity [nanoOhm meter]	16.8
Magnetic Susceptibility	−5.46e-6 cm^3/mol

Production and Price of Copper

Raw materials prices change daily. They are primarily driven by supply, demand and energy prices. In 2019, prices of pure Copper were at around 27 $/kg.

Most copper is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large open pit mines in porphyry copper deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0% copper. Sites include Chuquicamata, in Chile, Bingham Canyon Mine, in Utah, United States, and El Chino Mine, in New Mexico, United States. Copper is one of the most widely recycled of all metals; approximately one-third of all copper consumed worldwide is recycled. Recycled copper and its alloys can be remelted and used directly or further reprocessed to refined copper without losing any of the metal’s chemical or physical properties.

Source: www.luciteria.com

Mechanical Properties of Copper

Strength of Copper

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. In designing structures and machines, it is important to consider these factors, in order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads or forces and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

For tensile stress, the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.

See also: Strength of Materials

Ultimate Tensile Strength of Copper

Ultimate tensile strength of Copper is 210 MPa.

Yield Strength of Copper

Yield strength of Copper is 33 MPa.

Modulus of Elasticity of Copper

The Young’s modulus of elasticity of Copper is 120 GPa.

Hardness of Copper

In materials science, hardness is the ability to withstand surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and scratching. Brinell hardness test is one of indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Brinell hardness of Copper is approximately 250 MPa.

The Vickers hardness test method was developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers hardness test method can be also used as a microhardness test method, which is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.

Vickers hardness of Copper is approximately 350 MPa.

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The most common scale for this qualitative test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Copper is has a hardness of approximately 3.

See also: Hardness of Materials

Copper – Crystal Structure

A possible crystal structure of Copper is face-centered cubic structure.

In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in regular arrays called crystals. A crystal lattice is a repeating pattern of mathematical points that extends throughout space. The forces of chemical bonding causes this repetition. It is this repeated pattern which control properties like strength, ductility, density, conductivity (property of conducting or transmitting heat, electricity, etc.), and shape. There are 14 general types of such patterns known as Bravais lattices.

See also: Crystal Structure of Materials

Crystal Structure of Copper

Thermal Properties of Copper

Copper – Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point of Copper is 1084.62°C.

Boiling point of Copper is 2562°C.

Note that, these points are associated with the standard atmospheric pressure.

Copper – Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of Copper is 401 W/(m·K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Copper

Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Copper is 16.5 µm/(m·K)

Thermal expansion is generally the tendency of matter to change its dimensions in response to a change in temperature. It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change.

Copper – Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat of Copper is 0.38 J/g K.

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.

Latent Heat of Fusion of Copper is 13.05 kJ/mol.

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Copper is 300.3 kJ/mol.

Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.

Copper – Electrical Resistivity – Magnetic Susceptibility

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors, semiconductors, and nonconductors.

See also: Electrical Properties

Magnetic property refers to the response of a material to an applied magnetic field. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the constituent atoms. Different materials react to the application of magnetic field differently.

See also: Magnetic Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Copper

Electrical resistivity of Copper is 16.8 nΩ⋅m.

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how Copper conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Copper

Magnetic susceptibility of Copper is −5.46e-6 cm^3/mol.

In electromagnetism, magnetic susceptibility is the measure of the magnetization of a substance. Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of Copper in response to an applied magnetic field.

About Nickel

Nickel is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. Nickel belongs to the transition metals and is hard and ductile.

Summary

Element	Nickel
Atomic number	28
Element category	Transition Metal
Phase at STP	Solid
Density	8.908 g/cm3
Ultimate Tensile Strength	345 MPa
Yield Strength	70 MPa
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity	200 GPa
Mohs Scale	4
Brinell Hardness	700 MPa
Vickers Hardness	640 MPa
Melting Point	1455 °C
Boiling Point	2730 °C
Thermal Conductivity	90.7 W/mK
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	13.4 µm/mK
Specific Heat	0.44 J/g K
Heat of Fusion	17.47 kJ/mol
Heat of Vaporization	370.4 kJ/mol
Electrical resistivity [nanoOhm meter]	69.3
Magnetic Susceptibility	N/A

Production and Price of Nickel

Raw materials prices change daily. They are primarily driven by supply, demand and energy prices. In 2019, prices of pure Nickel were at around 77 $/kg.

Nickel is extracted by roasting to NiO and then reducing with carbon. The Mond process is used to manufacture pure nickel, in which impure nickel reacts with carbon monoxide (CO) to form Ni(CO)4, which is then decomposed at 200 °C to yield 99.99% Ni. More than 2.7 million tonnes (t) of nickel per year are estimated to be mined worldwide, with Indonesia (800,000 t), the Philippines (420,000 t), Russia (270,000 t), New Caledonia (220,000 t), Australia (180,000 t) and Canada (180,000 t) being the largest producers as of 2019.

Source: www.luciteria.com

Mechanical Properties of Nickel

Strength of Nickel

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. In designing structures and machines, it is important to consider these factors, in order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads or forces and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

For tensile stress, the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.

See also: Strength of Materials

Ultimate Tensile Strength of Nickel

Ultimate tensile strength of Nickel is 345 MPa.

Yield Strength of Nickel

Yield strength of Nickel is 70 MPa.

Modulus of Elasticity of Nickel

The Young’s modulus of elasticity of Nickel is 200 GPa.

Hardness of Nickel

In materials science, hardness is the ability to withstand surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and scratching. Brinell hardness test is one of indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Brinell hardness of Nickel is approximately 700 MPa.

The Vickers hardness test method was developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers hardness test method can be also used as a microhardness test method, which is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.

Vickers hardness of Nickel is approximately 640 MPa.

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The most common scale for this qualitative test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Nickel is has a hardness of approximately 4.

See also: Hardness of Materials

Nickel – Crystal Structure

A possible crystal structure of Nickel is face-centered cubic structure.

In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in regular arrays called crystals. A crystal lattice is a repeating pattern of mathematical points that extends throughout space. The forces of chemical bonding causes this repetition. It is this repeated pattern which control properties like strength, ductility, density, conductivity (property of conducting or transmitting heat, electricity, etc.), and shape. There are 14 general types of such patterns known as Bravais lattices.

See also: Crystal Structure of Materials

Crystal Structure of Nickel

Thermal Properties of Nickel

Nickel – Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point of Nickel is 1455°C.

Boiling point of Nickel is 2730°C.

Note that, these points are associated with the standard atmospheric pressure.

Nickel – Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of Nickel is 90.7 W/(m·K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Nickel

Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Nickel is 13.4 µm/(m·K)

Thermal expansion is generally the tendency of matter to change its dimensions in response to a change in temperature. It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change.

Nickel – Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat of Nickel is 0.44 J/g K.

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.

Latent Heat of Fusion of Nickel is 17.47 kJ/mol.

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Nickel is 370.4 kJ/mol.

Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.

Nickel – Electrical Resistivity – Magnetic Susceptibility

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors, semiconductors, and nonconductors.

See also: Electrical Properties

Magnetic property refers to the response of a material to an applied magnetic field. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the constituent atoms. Different materials react to the application of magnetic field differently.

See also: Magnetic Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Nickel

Electrical resistivity of Nickel is 69.3 nΩ⋅m.

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how Nickel conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Nickel

Magnetic susceptibility of Nickel is N/A.

In electromagnetism, magnetic susceptibility is the measure of the magnetization of a substance. Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of Nickel in response to an applied magnetic field.

Application and prices of other elements

About Cobalt

Cobalt is found in the Earth’s crust only in chemically combined form, save for small deposits found in alloys of natural meteoric iron. The free element, produced by reductive smelting, is a hard, lustrous, silver-gray metal.

Summary

Element	Cobalt
Atomic number	27
Element category	Transition Metal
Phase at STP	Solid
Density	8.9 g/cm3
Ultimate Tensile Strength	800 MPa
Yield Strength	220 MPa
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity	209 GPa
Mohs Scale	5
Brinell Hardness	800 MPa
Vickers Hardness	1040 MPa
Melting Point	1495 °C
Boiling Point	2927 °C
Thermal Conductivity	100 W/mK
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	13 µm/mK
Specific Heat	0.42 J/g K
Heat of Fusion	16.19 kJ/mol
Heat of Vaporization	376.5 kJ/mol
Electrical resistivity [nanoOhm meter]	62.4
Magnetic Susceptibility	N/A

Production and Price of Cobalt

Raw materials prices change daily. They are primarily driven by supply, demand and energy prices. In 2019, prices of pure Cobalt were at around 210 $/kg.

In 2016, 116,000 tonnes of cobalt was used. The main ores of cobalt are cobaltite, erythrite, glaucodot and skutterudite (see above), but most cobalt is obtained by reducing the cobalt by-products of nickel and copper mining and smelting. Since cobalt is generally produced as a by-product, the supply of cobalt depends to a great extent on the economic feasibility of copper and nickel mining in a given market.

Source: www.luciteria.com

Mechanical Properties of Cobalt

Strength of Cobalt

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. In designing structures and machines, it is important to consider these factors, in order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads or forces and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

For tensile stress, the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.

See also: Strength of Materials

Ultimate Tensile Strength of Cobalt

Ultimate tensile strength of Cobalt is 800 MPa.

Yield Strength of Cobalt

Yield strength of Cobalt is 220 MPa.

Modulus of Elasticity of Cobalt

The Young’s modulus of elasticity of Cobalt is 209 GPa.

Hardness of Cobalt

In materials science, hardness is the ability to withstand surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and scratching. Brinell hardness test is one of indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Brinell hardness of Cobalt is approximately 800 MPa.

The Vickers hardness test method was developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers hardness test method can be also used as a microhardness test method, which is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.

Vickers hardness of Cobalt is approximately 1040 MPa.

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The most common scale for this qualitative test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Cobalt is has a hardness of approximately 5.

See also: Hardness of Materials

Cobalt – Crystal Structure

A possible crystal structure of Cobalt is hexagonal close-packed structure.

In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in regular arrays called crystals. A crystal lattice is a repeating pattern of mathematical points that extends throughout space. The forces of chemical bonding causes this repetition. It is this repeated pattern which control properties like strength, ductility, density, conductivity (property of conducting or transmitting heat, electricity, etc.), and shape. There are 14 general types of such patterns known as Bravais lattices.

See also: Crystal Structure of Materials

Crystal Structure of Cobalt

Thermal Properties of Cobalt

Cobalt – Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point of Cobalt is 1495°C.

Boiling point of Cobalt is 2927°C.

Note that, these points are associated with the standard atmospheric pressure.

Cobalt – Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of Cobalt is 100 W/(m·K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Cobalt

Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Cobalt is 13 µm/(m·K)

Thermal expansion is generally the tendency of matter to change its dimensions in response to a change in temperature. It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change.

Cobalt – Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat of Cobalt is 0.42 J/g K.

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.

Latent Heat of Fusion of Cobalt is 16.19 kJ/mol.

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Cobalt is 376.5 kJ/mol.

Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.

Cobalt – Electrical Resistivity – Magnetic Susceptibility

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors, semiconductors, and nonconductors.

See also: Electrical Properties

Magnetic property refers to the response of a material to an applied magnetic field. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the constituent atoms. Different materials react to the application of magnetic field differently.

See also: Magnetic Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Cobalt

Electrical resistivity of Cobalt is 62.4 nΩ⋅m.

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how Cobalt conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Cobalt

Magnetic susceptibility of Cobalt is N/A.

In electromagnetism, magnetic susceptibility is the measure of the magnetization of a substance. Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of Cobalt in response to an applied magnetic field.

About Iron

Iron is a metal in the first transition series. It is by mass the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earth’s outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth’s crust. Its abundance in rocky planets like Earth is due to its abundant production by fusion in high-mass stars.

Summary

Element	Iron
Atomic number	26
Element category	Transition Metal
Phase at STP	Solid
Density	7.874 g/cm3
Ultimate Tensile Strength	540 MPa
Yield Strength	50 MPa
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity	211 GPa
Mohs Scale	4.5
Brinell Hardness	490 MPa
Vickers Hardness	608 MPa
Melting Point	1538 °C
Boiling Point	2861 °C
Thermal Conductivity	80.2 W/mK
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	11.8 µm/mK
Specific Heat	0.44 J/g K
Heat of Fusion	13.8 kJ/mol
Heat of Vaporization	349.6 kJ/mol
Electrical resistivity [nanoOhm meter]	96.1
Magnetic Susceptibility	N/A

Production and Price of Iron

Raw materials prices change daily. They are primarily driven by supply, demand and energy prices. In 2019, prices of pure Iron were at around 0.0675 $/kg.

Nowadays, the industrial production of iron or steel consists of two main stages. In the first stage, iron ore is reduced with coke in a blast furnace, and the molten metal is separated from gross impurities such as silicate minerals. This stage yields an alloy — pig iron. Pig iron, known also as crude iron, is produced by the blast furnace process and contains up to 4–5% carbon, with small amounts of other impurities like sulfur, magnesium, phosphorus, and manganese. The main mining areas for iron are China, Australia, Brazil, Russia, and Ukraine. Worlds annual iron ore production is about 1600 milion tonnes.

Source: www.luciteria.com

Mechanical Properties of Iron

Strength of Iron

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. In designing structures and machines, it is important to consider these factors, in order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads or forces and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

For tensile stress, the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.

See also: Strength of Materials

Ultimate Tensile Strength of Iron

Ultimate tensile strength of Iron is 540 MPa.

Yield Strength of Iron

Yield strength of Iron is 50 MPa.

Modulus of Elasticity of Iron

The Young’s modulus of elasticity of Iron is 211 GPa.

Hardness of Iron

In materials science, hardness is the ability to withstand surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and scratching. Brinell hardness test is one of indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Brinell hardness of Iron is approximately 490 MPa.

The Vickers hardness test method was developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers hardness test method can be also used as a microhardness test method, which is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.

Vickers hardness of Iron is approximately 608 MPa.

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The most common scale for this qualitative test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Iron is has a hardness of approximately 4.5.

See also: Hardness of Materials

Iron – Crystal Structure

A possible crystal structure of Iron is body-centered cubic structure.

In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in regular arrays called crystals. A crystal lattice is a repeating pattern of mathematical points that extends throughout space. The forces of chemical bonding causes this repetition. It is this repeated pattern which control properties like strength, ductility, density, conductivity (property of conducting or transmitting heat, electricity, etc.), and shape. There are 14 general types of such patterns known as Bravais lattices.

See also: Crystal Structure of Materials

Crystal Structure of Iron

Thermal Properties of Iron

Iron – Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point of Iron is 1538°C.

Boiling point of Iron is 2861°C.

Note that, these points are associated with the standard atmospheric pressure.

Iron – Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of Iron is 80.2 W/(m·K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Iron

Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Iron is 11.8 µm/(m·K)

Thermal expansion is generally the tendency of matter to change its dimensions in response to a change in temperature. It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change.

Iron – Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat of Iron is 0.44 J/g K.

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.

Latent Heat of Fusion of Iron is 13.8 kJ/mol.

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Iron is 349.6 kJ/mol.

Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.

Iron – Electrical Resistivity – Magnetic Susceptibility

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors, semiconductors, and nonconductors.

See also: Electrical Properties

Magnetic property refers to the response of a material to an applied magnetic field. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the constituent atoms. Different materials react to the application of magnetic field differently.

See also: Magnetic Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Iron

Electrical resistivity of Iron is 96.1 nΩ⋅m.

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how Iron conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Iron

Magnetic susceptibility of Iron is N/A.

In electromagnetism, magnetic susceptibility is the measure of the magnetization of a substance. Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of Iron in response to an applied magnetic field.