Nick Connor

About Zinc

In some respects zinc is chemically similar to magnesium: both elements exhibit only one normal oxidation state (+2), and the Zn2+ and Mg2+ ions are of similar size.

Summary

Element	Zinc
Atomic number	30
Element category	Transition Metal
Phase at STP	Solid
Density	7.14 g/cm3
Ultimate Tensile Strength	90 MPa
Yield Strength	75 MPa
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity	108 GPa
Mohs Scale	2.5
Brinell Hardness	330 MPa
Vickers Hardness	N/A
Melting Point	419.53 °C
Boiling Point	907 °C
Thermal Conductivity	116 W/mK
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	30.2 µm/mK
Specific Heat	0.39 J/g K
Heat of Fusion	7.322 kJ/mol
Heat of Vaporization	115.3 kJ/mol
Electrical resistivity [nanoOhm meter]	59
Magnetic Susceptibility	−11.4e-6 cm^3/mol

Production and Price of Zinc

Raw materials prices change daily. They are primarily driven by supply, demand and energy prices. In 2019, prices of pure Zinc were at around 37 $/kg.

The world’s largest zinc producer is Nyrstar, a merger of the Australian OZ Minerals and the Belgian Umicore. About 70% of the world’s zinc originates from mining, while the remaining 30% comes from recycling secondary zinc.

Source: www.luciteria.com

Mechanical Properties of Zinc

Strength of Zinc

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. In designing structures and machines, it is important to consider these factors, in order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads or forces and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

For tensile stress, the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.

See also: Strength of Materials

Ultimate Tensile Strength of Zinc

Ultimate tensile strength of Zinc is 90 MPa.

Yield Strength of Zinc

Yield strength of Zinc is 75 MPa.

Modulus of Elasticity of Zinc

The Young’s modulus of elasticity of Zinc is 108 GPa.

Hardness of Zinc

In materials science, hardness is the ability to withstand surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and scratching. Brinell hardness test is one of indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Brinell hardness of Zinc is approximately 330 MPa.

The Vickers hardness test method was developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers hardness test method can be also used as a microhardness test method, which is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.

Vickers hardness of Zinc is approximately N/A.

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The most common scale for this qualitative test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Zinc is has a hardness of approximately 2.5.

See also: Hardness of Materials

Zinc – Crystal Structure

A possible crystal structure of Zinc is hexagonal close-packed structure.

In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in regular arrays called crystals. A crystal lattice is a repeating pattern of mathematical points that extends throughout space. The forces of chemical bonding causes this repetition. It is this repeated pattern which control properties like strength, ductility, density, conductivity (property of conducting or transmitting heat, electricity, etc.), and shape. There are 14 general types of such patterns known as Bravais lattices.

See also: Crystal Structure of Materials

Crystal Structure of Zinc

Thermal Properties of Zinc

Zinc – Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point of Zinc is 419.53°C.

Boiling point of Zinc is 907°C.

Note that, these points are associated with the standard atmospheric pressure.

Zinc – Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of Zinc is 116 W/(m·K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Zinc

Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Zinc is 30.2 µm/(m·K)

Thermal expansion is generally the tendency of matter to change its dimensions in response to a change in temperature. It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change.

Zinc – Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat of Zinc is 0.39 J/g K.

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.

Latent Heat of Fusion of Zinc is 7.322 kJ/mol.

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Zinc is 115.3 kJ/mol.

Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.

Zinc – Electrical Resistivity – Magnetic Susceptibility

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors, semiconductors, and nonconductors.

See also: Electrical Properties

Magnetic property refers to the response of a material to an applied magnetic field. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the constituent atoms. Different materials react to the application of magnetic field differently.

See also: Magnetic Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Zinc

Electrical resistivity of Zinc is 59 nΩ⋅m.

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how Zinc conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Zinc

Magnetic susceptibility of Zinc is −11.4e-6 cm^3/mol.

In electromagnetism, magnetic susceptibility is the measure of the magnetization of a substance. Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of Zinc in response to an applied magnetic field.

About Copper

Copper is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a reddish-orange color. Copper is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, as a building material, and as a constituent of various metal alloys, such as sterling silver used in jewelry, cupronickel used to make marine hardware and coins, and constantan used in strain gauges and thermocouples for temperature measurement.

Summary

Element	Copper
Atomic number	29
Element category	Transition Metal
Phase at STP	Solid
Density	8.92 g/cm3
Ultimate Tensile Strength	210 MPa
Yield Strength	33 MPa
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity	120 GPa
Mohs Scale	3
Brinell Hardness	250 MPa
Vickers Hardness	350 MPa
Melting Point	1084.62 °C
Boiling Point	2562 °C
Thermal Conductivity	401 W/mK
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	16.5 µm/mK
Specific Heat	0.38 J/g K
Heat of Fusion	13.05 kJ/mol
Heat of Vaporization	300.3 kJ/mol
Electrical resistivity [nanoOhm meter]	16.8
Magnetic Susceptibility	−5.46e-6 cm^3/mol

Production and Price of Copper

Raw materials prices change daily. They are primarily driven by supply, demand and energy prices. In 2019, prices of pure Copper were at around 27 $/kg.

Most copper is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large open pit mines in porphyry copper deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0% copper. Sites include Chuquicamata, in Chile, Bingham Canyon Mine, in Utah, United States, and El Chino Mine, in New Mexico, United States. Copper is one of the most widely recycled of all metals; approximately one-third of all copper consumed worldwide is recycled. Recycled copper and its alloys can be remelted and used directly or further reprocessed to refined copper without losing any of the metal’s chemical or physical properties.

Source: www.luciteria.com

Mechanical Properties of Copper

Strength of Copper

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. In designing structures and machines, it is important to consider these factors, in order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads or forces and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

For tensile stress, the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.

See also: Strength of Materials

Ultimate Tensile Strength of Copper

Ultimate tensile strength of Copper is 210 MPa.

Yield Strength of Copper

Yield strength of Copper is 33 MPa.

Modulus of Elasticity of Copper

The Young’s modulus of elasticity of Copper is 120 GPa.

Hardness of Copper

In materials science, hardness is the ability to withstand surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and scratching. Brinell hardness test is one of indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Brinell hardness of Copper is approximately 250 MPa.

The Vickers hardness test method was developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers hardness test method can be also used as a microhardness test method, which is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.

Vickers hardness of Copper is approximately 350 MPa.

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The most common scale for this qualitative test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Copper is has a hardness of approximately 3.

See also: Hardness of Materials

Copper – Crystal Structure

A possible crystal structure of Copper is face-centered cubic structure.

In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in regular arrays called crystals. A crystal lattice is a repeating pattern of mathematical points that extends throughout space. The forces of chemical bonding causes this repetition. It is this repeated pattern which control properties like strength, ductility, density, conductivity (property of conducting or transmitting heat, electricity, etc.), and shape. There are 14 general types of such patterns known as Bravais lattices.

See also: Crystal Structure of Materials

Crystal Structure of Copper

Thermal Properties of Copper

Copper – Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point of Copper is 1084.62°C.

Boiling point of Copper is 2562°C.

Note that, these points are associated with the standard atmospheric pressure.

Copper – Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of Copper is 401 W/(m·K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Copper

Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Copper is 16.5 µm/(m·K)

Thermal expansion is generally the tendency of matter to change its dimensions in response to a change in temperature. It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change.

Copper – Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat of Copper is 0.38 J/g K.

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.

Latent Heat of Fusion of Copper is 13.05 kJ/mol.

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Copper is 300.3 kJ/mol.

Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.

Copper – Electrical Resistivity – Magnetic Susceptibility

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors, semiconductors, and nonconductors.

See also: Electrical Properties

Magnetic property refers to the response of a material to an applied magnetic field. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the constituent atoms. Different materials react to the application of magnetic field differently.

See also: Magnetic Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Copper

Electrical resistivity of Copper is 16.8 nΩ⋅m.

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how Copper conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Copper

Magnetic susceptibility of Copper is −5.46e-6 cm^3/mol.

In electromagnetism, magnetic susceptibility is the measure of the magnetization of a substance. Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of Copper in response to an applied magnetic field.

About Nickel

Nickel is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. Nickel belongs to the transition metals and is hard and ductile.

Summary

Element	Nickel
Atomic number	28
Element category	Transition Metal
Phase at STP	Solid
Density	8.908 g/cm3
Ultimate Tensile Strength	345 MPa
Yield Strength	70 MPa
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity	200 GPa
Mohs Scale	4
Brinell Hardness	700 MPa
Vickers Hardness	640 MPa
Melting Point	1455 °C
Boiling Point	2730 °C
Thermal Conductivity	90.7 W/mK
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	13.4 µm/mK
Specific Heat	0.44 J/g K
Heat of Fusion	17.47 kJ/mol
Heat of Vaporization	370.4 kJ/mol
Electrical resistivity [nanoOhm meter]	69.3
Magnetic Susceptibility	N/A

Production and Price of Nickel

Raw materials prices change daily. They are primarily driven by supply, demand and energy prices. In 2019, prices of pure Nickel were at around 77 $/kg.

Nickel is extracted by roasting to NiO and then reducing with carbon. The Mond process is used to manufacture pure nickel, in which impure nickel reacts with carbon monoxide (CO) to form Ni(CO)4, which is then decomposed at 200 °C to yield 99.99% Ni. More than 2.7 million tonnes (t) of nickel per year are estimated to be mined worldwide, with Indonesia (800,000 t), the Philippines (420,000 t), Russia (270,000 t), New Caledonia (220,000 t), Australia (180,000 t) and Canada (180,000 t) being the largest producers as of 2019.

Source: www.luciteria.com

Mechanical Properties of Nickel

Strength of Nickel

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. In designing structures and machines, it is important to consider these factors, in order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads or forces and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

For tensile stress, the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.

See also: Strength of Materials

Ultimate Tensile Strength of Nickel

Ultimate tensile strength of Nickel is 345 MPa.

Yield Strength of Nickel

Yield strength of Nickel is 70 MPa.

Modulus of Elasticity of Nickel

The Young’s modulus of elasticity of Nickel is 200 GPa.

Hardness of Nickel

In materials science, hardness is the ability to withstand surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and scratching. Brinell hardness test is one of indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Brinell hardness of Nickel is approximately 700 MPa.

The Vickers hardness test method was developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers hardness test method can be also used as a microhardness test method, which is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.

Vickers hardness of Nickel is approximately 640 MPa.

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The most common scale for this qualitative test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Nickel is has a hardness of approximately 4.

See also: Hardness of Materials

Nickel – Crystal Structure

A possible crystal structure of Nickel is face-centered cubic structure.

In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in regular arrays called crystals. A crystal lattice is a repeating pattern of mathematical points that extends throughout space. The forces of chemical bonding causes this repetition. It is this repeated pattern which control properties like strength, ductility, density, conductivity (property of conducting or transmitting heat, electricity, etc.), and shape. There are 14 general types of such patterns known as Bravais lattices.

See also: Crystal Structure of Materials

Crystal Structure of Nickel

Thermal Properties of Nickel

Nickel – Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point of Nickel is 1455°C.

Boiling point of Nickel is 2730°C.

Note that, these points are associated with the standard atmospheric pressure.

Nickel – Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of Nickel is 90.7 W/(m·K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Nickel

Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Nickel is 13.4 µm/(m·K)

Thermal expansion is generally the tendency of matter to change its dimensions in response to a change in temperature. It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change.

Nickel – Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat of Nickel is 0.44 J/g K.

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.

Latent Heat of Fusion of Nickel is 17.47 kJ/mol.

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Nickel is 370.4 kJ/mol.

Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.

Nickel – Electrical Resistivity – Magnetic Susceptibility

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors, semiconductors, and nonconductors.

See also: Electrical Properties

Magnetic property refers to the response of a material to an applied magnetic field. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the constituent atoms. Different materials react to the application of magnetic field differently.

See also: Magnetic Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Nickel

Electrical resistivity of Nickel is 69.3 nΩ⋅m.

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how Nickel conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Nickel

Magnetic susceptibility of Nickel is N/A.

In electromagnetism, magnetic susceptibility is the measure of the magnetization of a substance. Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of Nickel in response to an applied magnetic field.

Application and prices of other elements

About Cobalt

Cobalt is found in the Earth’s crust only in chemically combined form, save for small deposits found in alloys of natural meteoric iron. The free element, produced by reductive smelting, is a hard, lustrous, silver-gray metal.

Summary

Element	Cobalt
Atomic number	27
Element category	Transition Metal
Phase at STP	Solid
Density	8.9 g/cm3
Ultimate Tensile Strength	800 MPa
Yield Strength	220 MPa
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity	209 GPa
Mohs Scale	5
Brinell Hardness	800 MPa
Vickers Hardness	1040 MPa
Melting Point	1495 °C
Boiling Point	2927 °C
Thermal Conductivity	100 W/mK
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	13 µm/mK
Specific Heat	0.42 J/g K
Heat of Fusion	16.19 kJ/mol
Heat of Vaporization	376.5 kJ/mol
Electrical resistivity [nanoOhm meter]	62.4
Magnetic Susceptibility	N/A

Production and Price of Cobalt

Raw materials prices change daily. They are primarily driven by supply, demand and energy prices. In 2019, prices of pure Cobalt were at around 210 $/kg.

In 2016, 116,000 tonnes of cobalt was used. The main ores of cobalt are cobaltite, erythrite, glaucodot and skutterudite (see above), but most cobalt is obtained by reducing the cobalt by-products of nickel and copper mining and smelting. Since cobalt is generally produced as a by-product, the supply of cobalt depends to a great extent on the economic feasibility of copper and nickel mining in a given market.

Source: www.luciteria.com

Mechanical Properties of Cobalt

Strength of Cobalt

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. In designing structures and machines, it is important to consider these factors, in order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads or forces and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

For tensile stress, the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.

See also: Strength of Materials

Ultimate Tensile Strength of Cobalt

Ultimate tensile strength of Cobalt is 800 MPa.

Yield Strength of Cobalt

Yield strength of Cobalt is 220 MPa.

Modulus of Elasticity of Cobalt

The Young’s modulus of elasticity of Cobalt is 209 GPa.

Hardness of Cobalt

In materials science, hardness is the ability to withstand surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and scratching. Brinell hardness test is one of indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Brinell hardness of Cobalt is approximately 800 MPa.

The Vickers hardness test method was developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers hardness test method can be also used as a microhardness test method, which is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.

Vickers hardness of Cobalt is approximately 1040 MPa.

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The most common scale for this qualitative test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Cobalt is has a hardness of approximately 5.

See also: Hardness of Materials

Cobalt – Crystal Structure

A possible crystal structure of Cobalt is hexagonal close-packed structure.

In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in regular arrays called crystals. A crystal lattice is a repeating pattern of mathematical points that extends throughout space. The forces of chemical bonding causes this repetition. It is this repeated pattern which control properties like strength, ductility, density, conductivity (property of conducting or transmitting heat, electricity, etc.), and shape. There are 14 general types of such patterns known as Bravais lattices.

See also: Crystal Structure of Materials

Crystal Structure of Cobalt

Thermal Properties of Cobalt

Cobalt – Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point of Cobalt is 1495°C.

Boiling point of Cobalt is 2927°C.

Note that, these points are associated with the standard atmospheric pressure.

Cobalt – Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of Cobalt is 100 W/(m·K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Cobalt

Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Cobalt is 13 µm/(m·K)

Thermal expansion is generally the tendency of matter to change its dimensions in response to a change in temperature. It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change.

Cobalt – Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat of Cobalt is 0.42 J/g K.

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.

Latent Heat of Fusion of Cobalt is 16.19 kJ/mol.

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Cobalt is 376.5 kJ/mol.

Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.

Cobalt – Electrical Resistivity – Magnetic Susceptibility

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors, semiconductors, and nonconductors.

See also: Electrical Properties

Magnetic property refers to the response of a material to an applied magnetic field. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the constituent atoms. Different materials react to the application of magnetic field differently.

See also: Magnetic Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Cobalt

Electrical resistivity of Cobalt is 62.4 nΩ⋅m.

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how Cobalt conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Cobalt

Magnetic susceptibility of Cobalt is N/A.

In electromagnetism, magnetic susceptibility is the measure of the magnetization of a substance. Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of Cobalt in response to an applied magnetic field.

About Iron

Iron is a metal in the first transition series. It is by mass the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earth’s outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth’s crust. Its abundance in rocky planets like Earth is due to its abundant production by fusion in high-mass stars.

Summary

Element	Iron
Atomic number	26
Element category	Transition Metal
Phase at STP	Solid
Density	7.874 g/cm3
Ultimate Tensile Strength	540 MPa
Yield Strength	50 MPa
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity	211 GPa
Mohs Scale	4.5
Brinell Hardness	490 MPa
Vickers Hardness	608 MPa
Melting Point	1538 °C
Boiling Point	2861 °C
Thermal Conductivity	80.2 W/mK
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	11.8 µm/mK
Specific Heat	0.44 J/g K
Heat of Fusion	13.8 kJ/mol
Heat of Vaporization	349.6 kJ/mol
Electrical resistivity [nanoOhm meter]	96.1
Magnetic Susceptibility	N/A

Production and Price of Iron

Raw materials prices change daily. They are primarily driven by supply, demand and energy prices. In 2019, prices of pure Iron were at around 0.0675 $/kg.

Nowadays, the industrial production of iron or steel consists of two main stages. In the first stage, iron ore is reduced with coke in a blast furnace, and the molten metal is separated from gross impurities such as silicate minerals. This stage yields an alloy — pig iron. Pig iron, known also as crude iron, is produced by the blast furnace process and contains up to 4–5% carbon, with small amounts of other impurities like sulfur, magnesium, phosphorus, and manganese. The main mining areas for iron are China, Australia, Brazil, Russia, and Ukraine. Worlds annual iron ore production is about 1600 milion tonnes.

Source: www.luciteria.com

Mechanical Properties of Iron

Strength of Iron

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. In designing structures and machines, it is important to consider these factors, in order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads or forces and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

For tensile stress, the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.

See also: Strength of Materials

Ultimate Tensile Strength of Iron

Ultimate tensile strength of Iron is 540 MPa.

Yield Strength of Iron

Yield strength of Iron is 50 MPa.

Modulus of Elasticity of Iron

The Young’s modulus of elasticity of Iron is 211 GPa.

Hardness of Iron

In materials science, hardness is the ability to withstand surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and scratching. Brinell hardness test is one of indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Brinell hardness of Iron is approximately 490 MPa.

The Vickers hardness test method was developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers hardness test method can be also used as a microhardness test method, which is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.

Vickers hardness of Iron is approximately 608 MPa.

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The most common scale for this qualitative test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Iron is has a hardness of approximately 4.5.

See also: Hardness of Materials

Iron – Crystal Structure

A possible crystal structure of Iron is body-centered cubic structure.

In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in regular arrays called crystals. A crystal lattice is a repeating pattern of mathematical points that extends throughout space. The forces of chemical bonding causes this repetition. It is this repeated pattern which control properties like strength, ductility, density, conductivity (property of conducting or transmitting heat, electricity, etc.), and shape. There are 14 general types of such patterns known as Bravais lattices.

See also: Crystal Structure of Materials

Crystal Structure of Iron

Thermal Properties of Iron

Iron – Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point of Iron is 1538°C.

Boiling point of Iron is 2861°C.

Note that, these points are associated with the standard atmospheric pressure.

Iron – Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of Iron is 80.2 W/(m·K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Iron

Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Iron is 11.8 µm/(m·K)

Thermal expansion is generally the tendency of matter to change its dimensions in response to a change in temperature. It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change.

Iron – Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat of Iron is 0.44 J/g K.

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.

Latent Heat of Fusion of Iron is 13.8 kJ/mol.

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Iron is 349.6 kJ/mol.

Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.

Iron – Electrical Resistivity – Magnetic Susceptibility

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors, semiconductors, and nonconductors.

See also: Electrical Properties

Magnetic property refers to the response of a material to an applied magnetic field. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the constituent atoms. Different materials react to the application of magnetic field differently.

See also: Magnetic Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Iron

Electrical resistivity of Iron is 96.1 nΩ⋅m.

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how Iron conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Iron

Magnetic susceptibility of Iron is N/A.

In electromagnetism, magnetic susceptibility is the measure of the magnetization of a substance. Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of Iron in response to an applied magnetic field.

About Manganese

Manganese is a metal with important industrial metal alloy uses, particularly in stainless steels.

Summary

Element	Manganese
Atomic number	25
Element category	Transition Metal
Phase at STP	Solid
Density	7.47 g/cm3
Ultimate Tensile Strength	650 MPa
Yield Strength	230 MPa
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity	198 GPa
Mohs Scale	6
Brinell Hardness	200 MPa
Vickers Hardness	N/A
Melting Point	1246 °C
Boiling Point	2061 °C
Thermal Conductivity	7.82 W/mK
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	21.7 µm/mK
Specific Heat	0.48 J/g K
Heat of Fusion	12.05 kJ/mol
Heat of Vaporization	266 kJ/mol
Electrical resistivity [nanoOhm meter]	1440
Magnetic Susceptibility	+529e-6 cm^3/mol

Production and Price of Manganese

Raw materials prices change daily. They are primarily driven by supply, demand and energy prices. In 2019, prices of pure Manganese were at around 17 $/kg.

Manganese is most commonly produced by the reduction of the oxide with sodium, magnesium or aluminium. Alternatively it can be produced by electrolysis. About 80% of the known world manganese resources are in South Africa; other important manganese deposits are in Ukraine, Australia, India, China, Gabon and Brazil.

Source: www.luciteria.com

Mechanical Properties of Manganese

Strength of Manganese

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. In designing structures and machines, it is important to consider these factors, in order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads or forces and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

For tensile stress, the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.

See also: Strength of Materials

Ultimate Tensile Strength of Manganese

Ultimate tensile strength of Manganese is 650 MPa.

Yield Strength of Manganese

Yield strength of Manganese is 230 MPa.

Modulus of Elasticity of Manganese

The Young’s modulus of elasticity of Manganese is 198 GPa.

Hardness of Manganese

In materials science, hardness is the ability to withstand surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and scratching. Brinell hardness test is one of indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Brinell hardness of Manganese is approximately 200 MPa.

The Vickers hardness test method was developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers hardness test method can be also used as a microhardness test method, which is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.

Vickers hardness of Manganese is approximately N/A.

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The most common scale for this qualitative test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Manganese is has a hardness of approximately 6.

See also: Hardness of Materials

Manganese – Crystal Structure

A possible crystal structure of Manganese is body-centered cubic structure.

In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in regular arrays called crystals. A crystal lattice is a repeating pattern of mathematical points that extends throughout space. The forces of chemical bonding causes this repetition. It is this repeated pattern which control properties like strength, ductility, density, conductivity (property of conducting or transmitting heat, electricity, etc.), and shape. There are 14 general types of such patterns known as Bravais lattices.

See also: Crystal Structure of Materials

Crystal Structure of Manganese

Thermal Properties of Manganese

Manganese – Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point of Manganese is 1246°C.

Boiling point of Manganese is 2061°C.

Note that, these points are associated with the standard atmospheric pressure.

Manganese – Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of Manganese is 7.82 W/(m·K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Manganese

Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Manganese is 21.7 µm/(m·K)

Thermal expansion is generally the tendency of matter to change its dimensions in response to a change in temperature. It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change.

Manganese – Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat of Manganese is 0.48 J/g K.

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.

Latent Heat of Fusion of Manganese is 12.05 kJ/mol.

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Manganese is 266 kJ/mol.

Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.

Manganese – Electrical Resistivity – Magnetic Susceptibility

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors, semiconductors, and nonconductors.

See also: Electrical Properties

Magnetic property refers to the response of a material to an applied magnetic field. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the constituent atoms. Different materials react to the application of magnetic field differently.

See also: Magnetic Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Manganese

Electrical resistivity of Manganese is 1440 nΩ⋅m.

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how Manganese conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Manganese

Magnetic susceptibility of Manganese is +529e-6 cm^3/mol.

In electromagnetism, magnetic susceptibility is the measure of the magnetization of a substance. Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of Manganese in response to an applied magnetic field.

About Chromium

Chromium is a steely-grey, lustrous, hard and brittle metal which takes a high polish, resists tarnishing, and has a high melting point. A major development was the discovery that steel could be made highly resistant to corrosion and discoloration by adding metallic chromium to form stainless steel.

Summary

Element	Chromium
Atomic number	24
Element category	Transition Metal
Phase at STP	Solid
Density	7.14 g/cm3
Ultimate Tensile Strength	550 MPa
Yield Strength	131 MPa
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity	279 GPa
Mohs Scale	8.5
Brinell Hardness	1120 MPa
Vickers Hardness	1060 MPa
Melting Point	1907 °C
Boiling Point	2671 °C
Thermal Conductivity	93.7 W/mK
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	4.9 µm/mK
Specific Heat	0.45 J/g K
Heat of Fusion	16.9 kJ/mol
Heat of Vaporization	344.3 kJ/mol
Electrical resistivity [nanoOhm meter]	125
Magnetic Susceptibility	+280e-6 cm^3/mol

Production and Price of Chromium

Raw materials prices change daily. They are primarily driven by supply, demand and energy prices. In 2019, prices of pure Chromium were at around 100 $/kg.

Chromium is mined as chromite ore. Globally this ore is available in India, South Africa, Finland, Zimbabwe, Kazakihstan and the Philippines. Commercially, chromium is produced from chromite using silicothermic or aluminothermic reactions. Roasting and leaching processes are also used.

Source: www.luciteria.com

Mechanical Properties of Chromium

Strength of Chromium

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. In designing structures and machines, it is important to consider these factors, in order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads or forces and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

For tensile stress, the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.

See also: Strength of Materials

Ultimate Tensile Strength of Chromium

Ultimate tensile strength of Chromium is 550 MPa.

Yield Strength of Chromium

Yield strength of Chromium is 131 MPa.

Modulus of Elasticity of Chromium

The Young’s modulus of elasticity of Chromium is 279 GPa.

Hardness of Chromium

In materials science, hardness is the ability to withstand surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and scratching. Brinell hardness test is one of indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Brinell hardness of Chromium is approximately 1120 MPa.

The Vickers hardness test method was developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers hardness test method can be also used as a microhardness test method, which is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.

Vickers hardness of Chromium is approximately 1060 MPa.

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The most common scale for this qualitative test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Chromium is has a hardness of approximately 8.5.

See also: Hardness of Materials

Chromium – Crystal Structure

A possible crystal structure of Chromium is body-centered cubic structure.

In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in regular arrays called crystals. A crystal lattice is a repeating pattern of mathematical points that extends throughout space. The forces of chemical bonding causes this repetition. It is this repeated pattern which control properties like strength, ductility, density, conductivity (property of conducting or transmitting heat, electricity, etc.), and shape. There are 14 general types of such patterns known as Bravais lattices.

See also: Crystal Structure of Materials

Crystal Structure of Chromium

Thermal Properties of Chromium

Chromium – Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point of Chromium is 1907°C.

Boiling point of Chromium is 2671°C.

Note that, these points are associated with the standard atmospheric pressure.

Chromium – Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of Chromium is 93.7 W/(m·K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Chromium

Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Chromium is 4.9 µm/(m·K)

Thermal expansion is generally the tendency of matter to change its dimensions in response to a change in temperature. It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change.

Chromium – Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat of Chromium is 0.45 J/g K.

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.

Latent Heat of Fusion of Chromium is 16.9 kJ/mol.

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Chromium is 344.3 kJ/mol.

Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.

Chromium – Electrical Resistivity – Magnetic Susceptibility

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors, semiconductors, and nonconductors.

See also: Electrical Properties

Magnetic property refers to the response of a material to an applied magnetic field. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the constituent atoms. Different materials react to the application of magnetic field differently.

See also: Magnetic Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Chromium

Electrical resistivity of Chromium is 125 nΩ⋅m.

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how Chromium conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Chromium

Magnetic susceptibility of Chromium is +280e-6 cm^3/mol.

In electromagnetism, magnetic susceptibility is the measure of the magnetization of a substance. Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of Chromium in response to an applied magnetic field.

About Vanadium

Vanadium is a hard, silvery grey, ductile, and malleable transition metal. The elemental metal is rarely found in nature, but once isolated artificially, the formation of an oxide layer (passivation) stabilizes the free metal somewhat against further oxidation.

Summary

Element	Vanadium
Atomic number	23
Element category	Transition Metal
Phase at STP	Solid
Density	6.11 g/cm3
Ultimate Tensile Strength	800 MPa
Yield Strength	770 MPa
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity	128 GPa
Mohs Scale	6.7
Brinell Hardness	650 MPa
Vickers Hardness	630 MPa
Melting Point	1910 °C
Boiling Point	3407 °C
Thermal Conductivity	30.7 W/mK
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	8.4 µm/mK
Specific Heat	0.49 J/g K
Heat of Fusion	20.9 kJ/mol
Heat of Vaporization	0.452 kJ/mol
Electrical resistivity [nanoOhm meter]	197
Magnetic Susceptibility	+255e-6 cm^3/mol

Production and Price of Vanadium

Raw materials prices change daily. They are primarily driven by supply, demand and energy prices. In 2019, prices of pure Vanadium were at around 2200 $/kg.

Vanadium occurs naturally in about 65 minerals and in fossil fuel deposits. It is produced in China and Russia from steel smelter slag. Other countries produce it either from magnetite directly, flue dust of heavy oil, or as a byproduct of uranium mining. World vanadium reserves (that part of the identified vanadium resource that meets specified minimum physical and chemical criteria related to current mining and production practices) are estimated at about 15 million metric tons and it is likely suficient to meet vanadium needs into the next century at the present rate of consumption.

Source: www.luciteria.com

Mechanical Properties of Vanadium

Strength of Vanadium

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. In designing structures and machines, it is important to consider these factors, in order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads or forces and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

For tensile stress, the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.

See also: Strength of Materials

Ultimate Tensile Strength of Vanadium

Ultimate tensile strength of Vanadium is 800 MPa.

Yield Strength of Vanadium

Yield strength of Vanadium is 770 MPa.

Modulus of Elasticity of Vanadium

The Young’s modulus of elasticity of Vanadium is 128 GPa.

Hardness of Vanadium

In materials science, hardness is the ability to withstand surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and scratching. Brinell hardness test is one of indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Brinell hardness of Vanadium is approximately 650 MPa.

The Vickers hardness test method was developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers hardness test method can be also used as a microhardness test method, which is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.

Vickers hardness of Vanadium is approximately 630 MPa.

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The most common scale for this qualitative test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Vanadium is has a hardness of approximately 6.7.

See also: Hardness of Materials

Vanadium – Crystal Structure

A possible crystal structure of Vanadium is body-centered cubic structure.

In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in regular arrays called crystals. A crystal lattice is a repeating pattern of mathematical points that extends throughout space. The forces of chemical bonding causes this repetition. It is this repeated pattern which control properties like strength, ductility, density, conductivity (property of conducting or transmitting heat, electricity, etc.), and shape. There are 14 general types of such patterns known as Bravais lattices.

See also: Crystal Structure of Materials

Crystal Structure of Vanadium

Thermal Properties of Vanadium

Vanadium – Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point of Vanadium is 1910°C.

Boiling point of Vanadium is 3407°C.

Note that, these points are associated with the standard atmospheric pressure.

Vanadium – Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of Vanadium is 30.7 W/(m·K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Vanadium

Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Vanadium is 8.4 µm/(m·K)

Thermal expansion is generally the tendency of matter to change its dimensions in response to a change in temperature. It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change.

Vanadium – Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat of Vanadium is 0.49 J/g K.

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.

Latent Heat of Fusion of Vanadium is 20.9 kJ/mol.

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Vanadium is 0.452 kJ/mol.

Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.

Vanadium – Electrical Resistivity – Magnetic Susceptibility

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors, semiconductors, and nonconductors.

See also: Electrical Properties

Magnetic property refers to the response of a material to an applied magnetic field. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the constituent atoms. Different materials react to the application of magnetic field differently.

See also: Magnetic Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Vanadium

Electrical resistivity of Vanadium is 197 nΩ⋅m.

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how Vanadium conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Vanadium

Magnetic susceptibility of Vanadium is +255e-6 cm^3/mol.

In electromagnetism, magnetic susceptibility is the measure of the magnetization of a substance. Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of Vanadium in response to an applied magnetic field.

About Titanium

Titanium is a lustrous transition metal with a silver color, low density, and high strength. Titanium is resistant to corrosion in sea water, aqua regia, and chlorine. Titanium can be used in surface condensers. These condensers use tubes that are usually made of stainless steel, copper alloys, or titanium depending on several selection criteria (such as thermal conductivity or corrosion resistance). Titanium condenser tubes are usually the best technical choice, however titanium is very expensive material and the use of titanium condenser tubes is associated with very high initial costs.

Summary

Element	Titanium
Atomic number	22
Element category	Transition Metal
Phase at STP	Solid
Density	4.507 g/cm3
Ultimate Tensile Strength	434 MPa, 293 MPa (pure)
Yield Strength	380 MPa
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity	116 GPa
Mohs Scale	6
Brinell Hardness	700 – 2700 MPa
Vickers Hardness	800 – 3400 MPa
Melting Point	1668 °C
Boiling Point	3287 °C
Thermal Conductivity	21.9 W/mK
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	8.6 µm/mK
Specific Heat	0.52 J/g K
Heat of Fusion	15.45 kJ/mol
Heat of Vaporization	421 kJ/mol
Electrical resistivity [nanoOhm meter]	420
Magnetic Susceptibility	+153e-6 cm^3/mol

Production and Price of Titanium

Raw materials prices change daily. They are primarily driven by supply, demand and energy prices. In 2019, prices of pure Titanium were at around 61 $/kg.

The metal is extracted from its principal mineral ores by the Kroll and Hunter processes. Kroll’s process involved reduction of titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4), first with sodium and calcium, and later with magnesium, under an inert gas atmosphere. Pure titanium is stronger than common, low-carbon steels, but 45% lighter. It is also twice as strong as weak aluminium alloys but only 60% heavier.

Source: www.luciteria.com

Mechanical Properties of Titanium

Strength of Titanium

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. In designing structures and machines, it is important to consider these factors, in order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads or forces and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

For tensile stress, the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.

See also: Strength of Materials

Ultimate Tensile Strength of Titanium

Ultimate tensile strength of Titanium is 434 MPa, 293 MPa (pure).

Yield Strength of Titanium

Yield strength of Titanium is 380 MPa.

Modulus of Elasticity of Titanium

The Young’s modulus of elasticity of Titanium is 116 GPa.

Hardness of Titanium

In materials science, hardness is the ability to withstand surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and scratching. Brinell hardness test is one of indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Brinell hardness of Titanium is approximately 700 – 2700 MPa.

The Vickers hardness test method was developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers hardness test method can be also used as a microhardness test method, which is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.

Vickers hardness of Titanium is approximately 800 – 3400 MPa.

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The most common scale for this qualitative test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Titanium is has a hardness of approximately 6.

See also: Hardness of Materials

Titanium – Crystal Structure

A possible crystal structure of Titanium is hexagonal close-packed structure.

In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in regular arrays called crystals. A crystal lattice is a repeating pattern of mathematical points that extends throughout space. The forces of chemical bonding causes this repetition. It is this repeated pattern which control properties like strength, ductility, density, conductivity (property of conducting or transmitting heat, electricity, etc.), and shape. There are 14 general types of such patterns known as Bravais lattices.

See also: Crystal Structure of Materials

Crystal Structure of Titanium

Thermal Properties of Titanium

Titanium – Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point of Titanium is 1668°C.

Boiling point of Titanium is 3287°C.

Note that, these points are associated with the standard atmospheric pressure.

Titanium – Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of Titanium is 21.9 W/(m·K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Titanium

Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Titanium is 8.6 µm/(m·K)

Thermal expansion is generally the tendency of matter to change its dimensions in response to a change in temperature. It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change.

Titanium – Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat of Titanium is 0.52 J/g K.

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.

Latent Heat of Fusion of Titanium is 15.45 kJ/mol.

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Titanium is 421 kJ/mol.

Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.

Titanium – Electrical Resistivity – Magnetic Susceptibility

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors, semiconductors, and nonconductors.

See also: Electrical Properties

Magnetic property refers to the response of a material to an applied magnetic field. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the constituent atoms. Different materials react to the application of magnetic field differently.

See also: Magnetic Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Titanium

Electrical resistivity of Titanium is 420 nΩ⋅m.

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how Titanium conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Titanium

Magnetic susceptibility of Titanium is +153e-6 cm^3/mol.

In electromagnetism, magnetic susceptibility is the measure of the magnetization of a substance. Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of Titanium in response to an applied magnetic field.

About Scandium

Scandium is a silvery-white metallic d-block element, it has historically been sometimes classified as a rare-earth element, together with yttrium and the lanthanides.

Summary

Element	Scandium
Atomic number	21
Element category	Transition Metal
Phase at STP	Solid
Density	2.985 g/cm3
Ultimate Tensile Strength	200 MPa
Yield Strength	N/A
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity	74.4 GPa
Mohs Scale	N/A
Brinell Hardness	740 – 1200 MPa
Vickers Hardness	N/A
Melting Point	1541 °C
Boiling Point	2830 °C
Thermal Conductivity	15.8 W/mK
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	10.2 µm/mK
Specific Heat	0.6 J/g K
Heat of Fusion	14.1 kJ/mol
Heat of Vaporization	314.2 kJ/mol
Electrical resistivity [nanoOhm meter]	562
Magnetic Susceptibility	+315e-6 cm^3/mol

Production and Price of Scandium

Raw materials prices change daily. They are primarily driven by supply, demand and energy prices. In 2019, prices of pure Scandium were at around 14000 $/kg.

The world production of scandium is in the order of 15-20 tonnes per year, in the form of scandium oxide. The demand is about 50% higher, and both the production and demand keep increasing. A major source for scandium deposits was the now flooded Ashurst mine in Zhovti Vody outside Kiev, Ukraine, that was once a major harvesting ground for iron ore and uranium. To produce metallic scandium, the oxide is converted to scandium fluoride and then reduced with metallic calcium.

Source: www.luciteria.com

Mechanical Properties of Scandium

Strength of Scandium

In mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. Strength of materials basically considers the relationship between the external loads applied to a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. In designing structures and machines, it is important to consider these factors, in order that the material selected will have adequate strength to resist applied loads or forces and retain its original shape. Strength of a material is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

For tensile stress, the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate is known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.

See also: Strength of Materials

Ultimate Tensile Strength of Scandium

Ultimate tensile strength of Scandium is 200 MPa.

Yield Strength of Scandium

Yield strength of Scandium is N/A.

Modulus of Elasticity of Scandium

The Young’s modulus of elasticity of Scandium is 74.4 GPa.

Hardness of Scandium

In materials science, hardness is the ability to withstand surface indentation (localized plastic deformation) and scratching. Brinell hardness test is one of indentation hardness tests, that has been developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Brinell hardness of Scandium is approximately 740 – 1200 MPa.

The Vickers hardness test method was developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers hardness test method can be also used as a microhardness test method, which is mostly used for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work.

Vickers hardness of Scandium is approximately N/A.

Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The most common scale for this qualitative test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly.

Scandium is has a hardness of approximately N/A.

See also: Hardness of Materials

Scandium – Crystal Structure

A possible crystal structure of Scandium is hexagonal close-packed structure.

In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in regular arrays called crystals. A crystal lattice is a repeating pattern of mathematical points that extends throughout space. The forces of chemical bonding causes this repetition. It is this repeated pattern which control properties like strength, ductility, density, conductivity (property of conducting or transmitting heat, electricity, etc.), and shape. There are 14 general types of such patterns known as Bravais lattices.

See also: Crystal Structure of Materials

Crystal Structure of Scandium

Thermal Properties of Scandium

Scandium – Melting Point and Boiling Point

Melting point of Scandium is 1541°C.

Boiling point of Scandium is 2830°C.

Note that, these points are associated with the standard atmospheric pressure.

Scandium – Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of Scandium is 15.8 W/(m·K).

The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal conductivity, k (or λ), measured in W/m.K. It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer heat through a material by conduction. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Scandium

Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Scandium is 10.2 µm/(m·K)

Thermal expansion is generally the tendency of matter to change its dimensions in response to a change in temperature. It is usually expressed as a fractional change in length or volume per unit temperature change.

Scandium – Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat of Scandium is 0.6 J/g K.

Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per kelvin. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.

Latent Heat of Fusion of Scandium is 14.1 kJ/mol.

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Scandium is 314.2 kJ/mol.

Latent heat is the amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the gas (the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs. The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.

Scandium – Electrical Resistivity – Magnetic Susceptibility

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors, semiconductors, and nonconductors.

See also: Electrical Properties

Magnetic property refers to the response of a material to an applied magnetic field. The macroscopic magnetic properties of a material are a consequence of interactions between an external magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moments of the constituent atoms. Different materials react to the application of magnetic field differently.

See also: Magnetic Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Scandium

Electrical resistivity of Scandium is 562 nΩ⋅m.

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how Scandium conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

Magnetic Susceptibility of Scandium

Magnetic susceptibility of Scandium is +315e-6 cm^3/mol.

In electromagnetism, magnetic susceptibility is the measure of the magnetization of a substance. Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of Scandium in response to an applied magnetic field.